Lecture 1. Subject: Introduction. Subject and main tasks of study course

"The history of foreign culture"

Plan
1.The history of the foreign culture as a science and academic discipline.
2.Human culture, its nature, structure and function in historical terms.
3.The culture of the primitive society: origins, meaning and historical significance.

Basic concepts: the nature of culture, spirituality, cultural variations, functions of culture, periodization of historical and cultural development, originality, syncretism, Human Origins, archetype, Stone Age, Copper Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age world view and religious belief, megaliths, animism, magic, fetishism, totemism.

1.1. The history of foreign culture - the science and learning about the culture of discipline in its historical dimension. Its subject is the objective laws of universal and national cultural process, creation of sites, performance events and display events in the material and spiritual life of people. Historical and cultural branch of knowledge not only examines the conditions and factors which have influenced, shaped and developed cultural interests and needs of people, but also examines their participation in the creation, increase, preservation and transmission of cultural values. Cultural History examines the spiritual life in different societies and different historical periods, trying to highlight the features and achievements of major cultural and historical types. In addition, the most important task of historians is the analysis of processes and trends in the socio-cultural environment of the modern era. Key places in the cognitive process of rank problems and issues of theory and history of world culture, some cultural and geographic regions, nations, nationalities, countries.
As the term "culture" in science revolved considerable debate, historically developed a lot of definitions and approaches concerning it. Actually, the word culture is present in the lexicon of virtually everyone. But this notion is put different meanings: one only understand the spiritual values ​​of life, others - the more narrow the concept, it only refers to the phenomenon of art, literature, and others all understand this is a certain ideology, designed to serve, to provide "labor achievements," that is, solving economic problems.
Cultural phenomena studied many specific science - archeology, ethnography, history, sociology and science, studying different forms of consciousness - philosophy, art, aesthetics, ethics, religion, etc. Each specific science provides some ideas about culture as about the subject of his research. So, for archeology culture associated with the study subjects, which have reached us, which materialize the results of people of past eras. Ethnography studies the cultural expressions of a people in all their diversity and, at the same time, integrity. For the history of art culture - is, first of all human artistic activity and its results.
Thus, the phenomenon of culture appears to us extremely multidimensional and diverse, truly comprehensive and complicated enough. Not by chance, scientists and researchers have long argued about its precise definition. According to American experts Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Klakhona, from 1871 to 1919 was given seven definitions of culture. One of the first they believe the definition English historian culture of XIX century. Edward Burnett Tylor, contained in his work "Prehistoric Culture." From 1920 to 1950 was still 157 definitions of the term. Now, by some estimates, there are over 500 definitions of culture, but according to others, this figure is close to a thousand. However, the theoretical complexity of this problem is not confined to the polysemy of the term "culture". Culture - a multifaceted problem of historical development, and the word "culture" brings together diverse points of view.
The term "culture" comes from the Latin word cultura, which meant the cultivation of the soil, its cultivation, that is, changes in natural objects under the influence of man and his activities as opposed to the changes caused by natural causes. Already in the original sense of the term language expressed an important feature - the unity of culture, man and his activities. This concept, unlike the other, - natura (nature), means in this context, "created". World culture, any of its objects or phenomena are perceived not as a result of natural forces, but as a result of efforts of people themselves to improve, processing, transformation that is given directly to nature.
Currently, the concept of culture implies a certain level of historical development of society, creative power and abilities, reflected in the types and forms of life and human activity, as well as create their material and spiritual values. Therefore, to understand the nature of culture is possible only through the prism of human activity, people who inhabit our planet. Culture does not exist outside of man, it is initially associated with a man and born of the fact that it constantly strives to find meaning of his life and work, improve yourself and the world in which he lives.
Man is not born social, it is only in the process of becoming one. Education, education - is nothing more than mastering the culture, the process of transferring it from one generation to another. So, culture means the attraction of man to society, society. Any person doroslishayuchy above all that captures the culture that was already created to it, becoming a social experience of its predecessors. Mastering culture may take the form of interpersonal relations (communication in day-care, school, university, business, travel, family) and self-education (reading, visiting museums, theaters, cinemas, exhibitions, etc.). In today's world a huge role played by the media - radio, television, written press, Internet. Mastering previously accumulated experience, a person can make their own contribution to the cultural layer of modern civilized mankind. The process of socialization - is a continuous process of mastering the culture and at the same time, individualized identity, as cultural values ​​imposed on a certain individuality, character and mental structure, temperament, mentality.
Note that there are some contradictions socialization process, and hence culture.Indeed, the culture - a complex system that absorbs and reflects the contradictions of the world. They are, inter alia, as follows:
• In contradiction between socialization and individualization of persons: on the one hand, a person inevitably sotsializuyetsya, zasvoyuyuchy norms of society, and on the other - seeking to preserve the individuality of its people;
• The conflict between the normative culture and against the freedom that it gives a person as the norm and freedom - these are the two poles, two controversial principles;
• The conflict between traditional culture and the update that happens in her body.
These and other contradictions are not only essential characteristics of culture, but also a source of development.
The Arts peculiar own laws of functioning. And these laws help explain changes occurring in culture, because often it can not be explained only with social causes.This approach allows you to devote a certain culture stages, periods, and even entire epochs.

1.2. Culture, as noted above, a complex, multilevel system. In modern science share taken by her native culture. Therefore, quite rightly, primarily to provide global and national culture. The world culture - a synthesis of the best achievements of all national cultures of different peoples that inhabit our planet. National culture, in turn, is the synthesis of cultures of different strata of people, social groups and strata of the population of the respective society, country and state. The peculiarity of the national culture, its uniqueness and originality found in the spiritual (language, literature, music, painting, religion) and in material (especially the economic system of management, the tradition of labor and production) areas of life and activity.
Under specific culture media were also social communities (urban, rural, professional, youth), family, individual. Is generally accepted allocation of public (non-professional) and professional culture. Culture is also divided into certain types and varieties, and the reason for this division is taking into account the vast diversity of human activity. Hence, in particular, stands out material and spiritual culture of mankind. However, this classification is often arbitrary, because in real life all the fields of culture are closely interrelated and complementary.
An important feature of material culture - its netotozhnist no material life of society, no material assets or business activities. Material culture characterizing this activity in terms of its impact on human development, revealing the extent to which it provides opportunities to apply his skills and creative aspirations and talents. Material culture - a culture of labor and material production, the culture of life, place of residence (housing, apartments, houses, villages, cities), cultural attitudes towards their bodies, physical culture.
The spiritual formation of multi-culture arises and includes cognitive and intellectual culture, philosophical, ethical, artistic, legal, educational, religious.
According to some scholars, certain types of culture can not be attributed only to material or spiritual. They are vertical cross-section of culture, permeating its entire system. This economic, political, environmental, aesthetic culture. The content and the influence of culture on a person offers a number of researchers to share its progressive and reactionary, because the culture as a phenomenon that shapes the person can educate and create not only high moral, ethical person, but also immoral.
Historically associated with the culture of humanism, the foundation of culture is a measure of human development. No technical achievements, no scientific discovery alone will not determine the cultural level of society, if there is no humanity, if the culture does not aim at improving the rights, and the cultivation of its worst, often biological, qualities, characteristics and manifestations. Thus, the criterion of culture and kulturnosti a level of humanization of society. High and very difficult mission culture, its purpose and destination - a comprehensive human development, nurturing it in the best aspirations, creative, builders intentions.
There is division on one basis - it's current. Current - is the culture that is in mass use.Each era creates its current culture, which illustrates well the fashion, the dominant style of the day, not only in dress but also in culture in general. Relevance of Culture - a lively, direct process in which something is born, gaining strength, she lives and then departs, dies.
The structure of culture consists substantsionalni elements that materialize in its values ​​and norms, as well as functional elements that characterize the process of cultural activities, its various sides and aspects.
The structure of culture is complex and multifaceted. It includes a system of education, science, art, literature, mythology, morality, politics, law, religion. Thus all the elements interact with each other, forming a single system of such a unique phenomenon of culture. Complex and multi-cultural structure determines the diversity of its functions in society and man.
Culture - multifunction system. The main function of the phenomenon of culture is lyudynotvorcha or humanistic, and all the others in some way related, and even deriving from it. The most important - function of translation (transfer) social experience. Its function is sometimes called historical continuity or information.Culture, which is a complex sign system, is the only mechanism of transmission of social experience from generation to generation, from epoch to epoch, from one country to another. After addition of culture, society has no other mechanism for broadcasting the whole wealth of experience accumulated by mankind. That is why culture consider the social memory of mankind. Gaps in the same cultural continuity doom new generation of loss of social memory (a phenomenon mankurtyzmu) with all relevant adverse effects.
Another leading feature is cognitive (epistemological). It is closely related to the first and in a sense derived from it. Culture, which concentrates in itself the best social experience of many generations, becomes immanent ability to accumulate rich knowledge about the world and thereby create opportunities for learning and mastering it.
Arguably, the public is intelligent in so far as it uses rich knowledge contained in the cultural gene pool of humanity. Maturity culture is largely determined by the degree of development of cultural values ​​of the past. All types of societies differ significantly above the mark. Some of them demonstrate a remarkable ability through culture, using culture to take the best that people have accumulated, and put himself at the service. Such society (in Japan, for example) show great dynamism in many areas of science, technology and production. Others, unable to use the cognitive functions of culture, is still inventing a bicycle, and thus condemned themselves to backwardness.
Regulatory function of culture is associated primarily with the definition, management of the various parties of the social and personal activities of people. In the world of work, life, interpersonal relations culture in one way or another affect behavior and regulate their behavior, actions and even the choice of certain material and spiritual values. Regulatory function of culture is based on the regulatory system such as morality and law.
Semiotic or symbolic function - the most important crops in the system. As a specific sign system, culture assumes knowledge possession. Without studying the relevant sign systems to learn the achievements of culture is impossible. Yes, language (oral or written) - is a means of communication of people, literary language - the most important means of mastering the national culture. The specific language required for special knowledge of the world of music, painting, theater. Natural sciences (physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology) should in its own sign systems.
Value or aksyolohichna (from Gr. Ahia - value) function displays the most important qualitative condition of culture. Culture as a system of values ​​in human form is quite specific needs and value orientation. According to their level and quality of people most often judged on the degree kulturnosti of a person. Ethics and intellectual content is usually relevant is the criterion for evaluation.
The entire historical path traversed by mankind from ancient times to the present, the way of cultural achievements and heritage of civilization, can be presented in a concise chronological terms, the classification in the division on certain internal logic stipulated periods:

INITIAL CULTURE AND SOCIETY

• Stone Age, more than 2 million years ago - to the IV century BC
• Copper-Stone Age (eneolith), IV BC - II BC
• Bronze Age, II BC - And BC
• Iron Age, from the pre BC

Ancient World

Ancient East:

• Ancient Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia), IV BC - BC border
• Ancient Egypt, IV - III BC - BC border
• Ancient India, III millennium BC - BC border
• Ancient China, II BC - BC border

Antiquity:

• Ancient Greece, II BC - IV century. BC
• Hellenistic state, IV - and art. BC
• Ancient Rome, VIII century. BC - V cc. BC

MIDDLE AGES
• Early, V - X century.
• Classic, XI - XV centuries.
• Late, XV - beginning of XVII century.

The Renaissance (Renaissance)
XIV - XVI centuries. (In the classical and late Middle Ages)

• Early, XIV - XV centuries.
• High, XV - XVI centuries.
• Late 40-ies of the XVI century. - The early years of the XVII century.

NEW TIME
(Middle of XVII century. - XIX century).

• Age of Enlightenment, 1640 - 1789 рр.

NEW TIMES (PRESENT)
(XX - early XXI century).

1.3. Imagine a culture without its carrier - a person - it is simply impossible, and therefore there is the paramount issue of the time of appearance of people as a separate species. This issue, despite the considerable amount of knowledge, is still controversial. In science and public opinion portrayed in at least three approaches to this problem. In particular, of certain religious doctrines of the various space hypothesis, and, finally, about evolutionary theory. Modern science puts forward two basic concepts of human origins:
• the analysis of remnant remains, ancient artifacts concludes the evolutionary nature of people to move from one species to another, and insists above all on that supporters of Darwinism;
• DNA studies, spectral analysis using powerful computers, computer displays the person from one motherland - Africa, where supposedly lived only Foremother mankind.
Probably only known that the rise of the human being begins in the distant past. In the process, anthropologists and historians identify several basic steps:
• ancient ancestors of modern man was kind of Australopithecus, which appeared about 4 million years ago in southeastern Africa;
• the second phase was the appearance of Pithecanthropus (archanthropinae) or "human pryamohodyachoyi" (Latin - Homo erektus) about 2 million years ago;
• the third stage there were Neanderthals (paleoantropy) or "people must be able" (Homo habilis) 150 thousand years ago;
• kromanonets (neoantrop) or Homo sapiens appears only 40-45 thousand years ago.
However, modern anthropology still does not give a definitive and reliable answer to the question pershopochatku genesis of rights, in particular no clear picture of time and causes the transition from person to person reasonably skilful, as well as about the starting point of its evolution. Moreover, some recently obtained data only hamper scientific vision. Yes, the established fact of extinction, extinction of Neanderthals 27 thousand years ago and has proven that co-existence, dialogue with them kromanontsyamy put a new question: what exactly was this communication - cooperation, exchange or hostility? It is obvious only that the man was in his biological and social development is very long and very tortuous.
Much of the history of mankind falls between pervisnosti, which lasted many hundreds of thousands of years. The oldest tools of man dating back to times of more than 2 million years ago. For materials with which people made the appropriate tools, archaeologists are divided on the world history of the original stone, copper, bronze and iron age. In science uses the following periodization pervisnosti:
Stone Age
(Over 2 million years ago - IV BC)
Tools and weapons from stone, wood, bone, class gathering, hunting, fishing.
• Paleolithic (old stone age) - from 2 million to XII BC
• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) - from XII to VII BC
• Neolithic (New Stone Age) - from VII to IV millennium BC

Copper-Stone Age (eneolith)
(IV - II century BC)
Predominant tools from stone and copper appear.

Bronze Age
(End of II - beginning I thousand BC)
Metallurgy of bronze, nomadic pastoralism, irrigation farming.

Iron Age
(Beginning and BC)
Metallurgy of iron

A characteristic feature of primitive art at the early stage was syncretism (from the Greek. Connection) - the combination of dissimilar beliefs. Human activity associated with the artistic development of the world, contributed to both the formation of the Nomo sariens (wise man). At this stage the possibility of mental processes and feelings of primitive man were in the bud, in the collective unconscious, in the so-called archetype (from Gr. Ahshe - beginning and turos - image) - the prototype, the primary form. Awareness of the world occurred spontaneously, each concept was hiding image, live performance.
The first original works of art that came to us, belong to a mature stage orynyakskoyi era (about 33-18th centuries BC). This female statuettes of stone and bone from hypertrophied forms the body, head - the so-called "Venus" is obviously connected with the cult of mother-ancestor, and symbolized fertility. Similar "Venus" also found in Italy, Austria, Czech Republic, Russia and many other countries. At the same time there are clear depictions of animals that reproduce the characteristics of a mammoth, elephant, horse, deer.
The oldest artefacts found in Western Europe. They date from the same period of the Upper Paleolithic, and that the emergence of modern human type. Attractions original paintings discovered more than 100 years ago. In 1879 the Spanish archaeologist M. Sautuola opened multicolor image Paleolithic era in the Altamira cave (Spain). In 1895 were found drawings of prehistoric man in the cave of La Mut in France. In France in 1901, Mr. Breuil found about 300 pictures of mammoth, bison, deer, horse, bear in a cave Les Kombatel in the Weser valley. There is an image of man (in most cases - in masks). In the same year near Le Kombatelya Pestroni archaeologist in a cave where Von Gom opened a "picture gallery": 40 pictures of wild horses, 23 - mammoth, 17 - deer. Drawings made ocher and other paints, secrets are not found today.
Initially, primitive art, inseparable in a special activity and is associated with hunting and working processes, reflecting a gradual man's knowledge of reality, her first idea about the world. Some art critics are three stages of visual activity in the Paleolithic age. Each of them is characterized by the creation of a new pictorial form:
• natural creativity - composition of carcasses, bones, natural layout;
• artificial fine arts form - a large clay sculpture, relief, profile contour;
• verhnopaleolitychna works fine arts - painting caves, engraving on bone.
Similar steps can be followed and the study of musical layer of primitive art. Music principle was not separated from the movement, gestures, exclamations, facial expressions. Musical element "natural pantomime" - an imitation of nature sounds, onomatopoeic reasons. The simplest flute, similar to whistles, with three to seven holes for fingers, were found during excavations in France, Eastern Europe and Russia. French designs of these instruments are made of hollow bird bones and specimens from Eastern Europe and Russia - from deer and ursine. The oldest musical instruments were drums and clapper.
In the prehistoric era dating back all kinds of art: graphics (drawings and silhouettes), painting (pictures in color, made of mineral paint), sculptures (figures carved from stone or vylipleni of clay) and architecture (Paleolithic habitation). Interesting works of Paleolithic art found on Mezinskoy parked in Ukraine. Even in the XIX century, with stone and bone tools, needles with an eye ornaments, remains of dwellings and other findings were found with bone masterfully printed on them geometric patterns.Geometric pattern covered with bracelets, various statues and figurines carved from mammoth tusk. Geometric pattern, consisting mainly of a set of zigzag lines - the main element Mezinskoho art. In recent years, this amazing zigzag picture found in other Paleolithic of Eastern and Central Europe. Basis mezynskoho geometric ornament - a pattern, painted by nature. But the ancient artists did not just copying nature, they make an ornament in its original new compositions and elements. In one of the dwellings Mezynskoyi parking was also found the oldest musical instrument made of mammoth bones. It was intended to reproduce the noise or rhythmic sounds.
Later stages of primitive culture belong to the Mesolithic, Neolithic and the time distribution of the first metal tools. From the appropriation of finished products of nature primitive man gradually moves to more complex forms of labor, along with hunting and fishing is now engaged in farming and cattle breeding.
Art of Neolithic and Bronze Age also marked innovations and further complication of forms. By the Neolithic and Bronze Age include images that convey more complex and more general concepts. Then emerged the following types of arts and crafts as pottery and metal. People made bows, arrows, pottery. The new Stone Age was the first artificial material invented by man - refractory clay. Earlier, people used to their needs that give nature - stone, wood, bone.
However, with all its vital expression and realistic generalization, Paleolithic art is intuitive, spontaneous. It consists of some specific images, it lacks the background, there are no songs in the modern sense of the word.
On the territory of our country first metal products were about 9 thousand years ago.They were forged - casting was invented much later. In particular about 5 thousand years ago is made of copper awls, knives, hooks, and about 4 thousand years ago - and the first art castings.
The last stage in the development of the tribes of the Bronze Age is characterized Metallurgy and metal. Conducted extraction of copper ore, copper vyplavlyalasya was established manufacturing finished products from alloys (bronze). At the end of this period, along with bronze objects began to appear and iron. In the late period of primitive society develop rapidly crafts - products made of bronze, gold, silver. The development of productive forces leads to the fact that part of the pastoral tribes goes to nomadic pastoralism. But other tribes, continuing to lead a settled way of life based on farming, moving to a higher stage of development - to Plugova agriculture. At this time, and social transformation taking place within the tribes.
Separately characterize the culture of the time of primitive dwellings and burial. Thus, by the end of the prehistoric era, a new kind of architecture - the castle. Most often they were built with large, roughly hewn stones that have survived in many places in Western Europe. The settlement is divided into an unfortified (parking, village) and fortified (settlement). Villages and settlement is usually referred to as monuments of the Bronze Age and Iron. When parking is implied village of stone and bronze ages.types of monuments. Burial divided into two basic types - graves gravestone of structures (mounds, megaliths, tombs) and the burial ground, ie without any sepulchral structures. The most complex structures - all kinds of megalithic burial (from December. Megas - big, lithos - stone), is buried in the tombs, built of large stones - dolmens, menhirs. In Western Europe it is common dolmens (from Breton tol - table and men - stone) and menhirs (from Breton men - stone and hir - long) - some stone pillars. Menhirs are longer than 21 m and weighing about 300 tons. In the city of Karnak (France) 2683 menhirs set in the form of long rows of stone alleys.Sometimes stones are located in a circle, they are called differently - cromlech (from Breton crom - round and lech - stone). Cromlech are places of worship.
Beliefs in primitive human society was the response of total persons in society and its perception of the total universe. Closely linked to the original mythical beliefs, they were based on animism (from Lat. Anima - spirit, soul) - giving human qualities to natural phenomena. The most ancient form of religion is magic (from December. Mageia - magic, witchcraft), which is a series of symbolic actions and rituals of certain spells and rituals. A variety of magic is fetishism (Fr. fetiche-idol, mascot) - belief in the supernatural properties of material things, both natural and man made.
In the history of spiritual culture and religion showing that many ancient peoples of the important role of providing worship of animals and trees. The surrounding world in general seemed savage alive, and trees and animals do not constitute an exception to the rule. Savage believed that they have souls like his own, and accordingly communicated to them. When primitive man called himself the name of the animal, called it his "brother" and refrained from killing her, so called totemic animal (from ind. "Toteman about" - his family). Totemism - a belief in krovnosporidneni relationships between genus and specific plants or animals. Remains of these forms have been preserved in virtually all religions and traditions in daily life and peoples.
Art, spiritual and material culture of the prehistoric era became the basis, the foundation for further development of world art, for the birth and development of the first civilizations on Earth. Big and brilliant culture of ancient Egypt, Sumer, Babylon, India, China emerged on the basis of everything that was created to its original predecessors.

Questions for self control:
1. What is the essence of the concepts of "culture", "World Culture", "national culture"?
2. Why culture - a complex social phenomenon, how it affects the general condition of society?
3. What are the functions, levels and types of crops do you know?
4. Expand the relationship between culture and economy in the process of society.
5. What are the defining features of culture was primitive society?