LECTURE 11. U.S. EDUCATION

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

SUMMARY

1. The history of AE counts more than three centuries. The English language first came to North America at the beginning of the 17th century. The first (early) period (beginning of the 17th – end of the 18th centuries) is characterized by the formation of American dialects of the English language. The second period (19th-20th centuries) is characterized by the creation of American variant of the English language.

2. American English (AE) differs from British English (BE) in vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and spelling.

3. Native American languages were one of the strongest forces to shape the language in the New World.

4. Hollanders, Germans, Spaniards, Italians and French contributed many very important words to the American language.

5. Black English Vernacular is the variety spoken by some 80 % of present-day black Americans.

6. American English today carries in itself characteristic features of various ethnicities. It is the most powerful instrument which cements the persistence and the strength of the national idea.

1. What influences did the English language in America fall under?

2. What is the general definition of Americanisms?

3. What characterized the process of word formation in AE?

4. What does the comparative analysis of ranges of meanings of the same words in AE and BE (e.g., store, cracker, corn, etc.) show?

5. What are most striking differences between BE and AE?

6. What is the backward influence of AE on BE?

7. What languages and cultures did AE borrow from?

 


This lecture will describe the U.S. education system, and types of schools. It portrays:

· U.S. education history

· financing of education: role of the federal and state governments, and the local community

· organizational structure

· preschool education

· compulsory education: elementary school, middle school, high school

· basic curriculum structure, electives, additional options for gifted students, standardized testing,

· higher school education: colleges and universities

· public vs. private schools: primary, secondary and tertiary education, cost, the status ladder

 

Key Words and Proper Names: alumni, athletic prowess, civics, college-bound students, community college, compulsory education, crèche, curriculum, elementary school, freshman, junior, grade, guidance counseling, middle school, high school, electives, postgraduate study, proficiency, senior, sophomore, standardized testing, state commissioner of education, superintendent of public instruction, tertiary, top tier, transcript, undergraduate study, vocational and technical education;

Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate courses, the Ivy League, the No Child Left Behind Act; ACT (American College Testing Program), ETS (Educational Testing Service), GRE (graduate schools in general), the LSAT (test for law school), SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test); the GMAT (test for business school), or the MCAT (test for medicine school).

Statistics: Among the U.S. adult population, over 85% have completed high school, and 30% have received at least a bachelor’s degree. The average salary for college graduates is $51,000, exceeding the national average by more than $23,000. Literacy is estimated at 99%. The 2011 unemployment rate for high school graduates was 7.6%; the rate for college graduates was 4.9% with weekly earnings more than $400.

From the U.S. Census Bureau, the median salary of an individual who has only a high school diploma is $27,967. The median salary of an individual who has a bachelor's degree is $47,345. Certain degrees, such as in engineering, typically result in salaries far exceeding high school graduates, whereas degrees in teaching and social work fall below.]

The 2011 U.S. statistics: there were 74.1 million students, of them: 35 million - pre-kindergarten through Grade 8 students; 14.8millon - Grades 9-12 students; 5.8 million - private school students; 18.5 million - college and university students (10.5 million women, 8 million men). Of them engineers - 10% women, computer science - 18% women.

U.S. education history:When colonists from Europe first arrived in America, they had to decide upon a means which would preserve their cultural heritage. The answer was the town school. 30 years after founding the first settlement in Massachusetts in 1620, all towns were required to hire a schoolmaster to teach reading, writing and arithmetic, as well as religion; larger towns were required to establish grammar schools to prepare children for the university. At the university level, Harvard (Massachusetts) was founded in 1636, and William and Mary college (Virginia) in 1693. In 1776, on the eve of the American Revolu­tion, America had 14 colleges. The whole idea of schooling developed with the passing time, schooling meant not only preserving parts of classical education, but also teaching the skills necessary to build a new North American nation/statehood. Americans freely borrowed from English, French and German schools. The result was that by the mid-19th century the same school would offer its students Latin and animal husbandry, arithmetic and home economics.

As Americans moved west, their belief in schooling remained un­changed, but the new settings on the Midwestern prairies and the Southwest­ern deserts called for adaptation. Each state, with its own constitutional jurisdiction over schools, determined each school’s own curricula, standards and pur­poses. Each community raised funds for school buildings and teachers. Although these factors led to a considerable diversity, the role of the school in America was similar in all parts of the country.

The Merrill Act of 1862 passed by Congress revolutionized American higher education. The Act granted public lands to states for the sites of institutions teaching agriculture and mechanics, to prepare students for “the ordinary pursuits and professions of life.” These colleges legitimized vocational and technical education and grew much more rapidly than liberal arts colleges created in imitation of the older private universities of the East Coast. Today’s great state universities have grown from these pragmatic roots.

In 1834, Pennsylvania established a completely free, publicly support­ed, and publicly controlled state school system. By the end of the Civil War in 1865, education from primary school through university was becoming available to all, and had attracted to its service many of the best-trained members of society. The public school became the vessel in which a distinctive American civilization was shaped.

On the 19th-century frontier, the school, along with the church and jail, was a key public building in the community. It was the settlers’ social center used outside school hours for community meetings, adult education, farmer training, youth recreation and social gatherings. School unified rural and village communities. Town pride was associated with the town school’s athletic valor. Attendance at athletic contests brought the whole pop­ulation into the school’s life, helping to integrate a diverse population into one community.

Colleges and universities also served the purpose of social integration. State universities bear the name of their state, and their achievements were recognized as state achievements. The work of their technical and agricultural faculties was to facilitate the state’s development.

In fact, schools became an Americanizing agent for the massive numbers of new immigrants who arrived in great waves during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The schools, which taught exclusively in English, required students to take courses in grammar and literature, Ameri­can history, civics (government) and civilization. Indeed, 21st century America is the product of a well-schooled affection for technology.

American education today reflects national and social problems. Because it is principally supported by public monies, it reflects economic stresses. And because it is one of the vessels in which “America” is molded, it reflects contradictory theories of how to choose the right pattern for the future. E.g., one of the most important issues in American education during the past decades has been the curriculum reform.

So, in the late 1960’s, academic curricula were changed to suit student interests and tastes. On high school level, the “3 R’s” — reading, writing and arithmetic — were badly neglected in favor of experimentation and more “relevant” elective courses. Resulting national test scores showed an alarming decline in student proficiency. Thus, during the mid-70’s, there was a marked departure from experimentation and a return to the basics. Many states began to administer proficiency tests for graduating high school students.

This em­phasis on the basics was supplemented in the 80’s by a realization of the need for training (or at least orientation) in more technologically based fields like computer science and communications. Traditional courses in science and the humanities were also reemphasized. At the turn of the 21st century, most states increased the number of courses required for graduation.

Financing of Education:

Authority over education: The U.S. Constitution divided the powers between the federal government and the states and left the responsibility for education to the states by keeping silent on the subject. The 10th Amendment to the Constitution provides that “the powers not delegated to the U.S. by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.” So, the authority over education and the responsibility for organizing and administering it was placed in the hands of the states, agencies and institutions within the states.

Role of the Federal Government:In the past, the U.S. people were reluctant to have the federal government pay for, and thus possibly control, education. But when educational costs began to outrun the ability of state and local governments to pay for them the people began to turn to the federal government for assistance.

The responsibilities of the federal government toward education today are to provide encouragement, financial support and leadership. The U.S. Congress has constitutional powers to allocate funds for education, but it has no direct control over education. Several departments within the federal government (e.g., the Department of Defense and the Department of Agriculture) also make large expenditures on specific educational programs.

The agency which has primary federal responsibility for the U.S. education is called the Department of Education. It provides leadership and cooperates with institutions and profes­sional associations in efforts to strengthen and improve public education.

Role of the state government:Since the states are responsible for their education systems, their practices and policies differ from one another. In each state, the department of education and its controlling board of educa­tion and chief school officer are responsible for the operation of the school system.

The state board of education determines educational policies in com­pliance with the state laws. Board members are elected by the people or ap­pointed by the state governor and usually serve from 2 to 6 years. They are empowered to formulate policies relating to educational affairs such as allocation of school funds, certification of teachers, textbooks and library services, and provision of records and educational statistics. The key education official and chief executive officer of the state board of education is called the superintendent of public instruction or state com­missioner of education. They may be elected by the people, or appointed by the governor of the state or by the board of education. Superintendents or commissioners usually serve from 1 to 6 years; their term of office usually is determined by the board. They are responsible for administering the state school system and implementing policies adopted by the board.

Role of the local community:There are approximately 13,900 school districts in the U.S. The great majority are run by regularly elected boards of citizens, usually 5 to 7 in number. These boards collect taxes, construct buildings, determine instruction­al policies, employ teachers and administrators, and generally oversee the day-to-day operation of the schools.

The superintendent of schools is responsible for the execution of the poli­cies set down by the local board of education. Together, the superintendent and the board prepare the school budget, determine the amount of local taxes (usually property taxes) necessary to finance the school program, employ teachers and other school personnel, provide and maintain the school buildings, purchase equipment and supplies, and provide trans­portation for pupils who live beyond reasonable walking distance from school.