Functions of adverbs in English and Ukrainian.
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According to their meaning, adverbs in both contrasted languages perform the following common functions:
| 1. The adverbial modifier of manner or quality: | |
| "He began to work very deliberately and carefully". (London) | Biн став працювати дуже обдумано й уважно. |
| 2. The adverbial modifier of time: | |
| "Your advice has helped me today". (Meredith) | Твоя порада допомогла мені вже сьогодні. |
| 3. The adverbial modifier of degree arid quality: | |
| "Almost instantly we were shut up in a fog". (Twain) | Нас майже вмить окутало туманом. |
| 4. The attribute: | |
| "The light outside had chilled...". (Galsworthy). "...he could see them talking together in the little court below" (Ibid.) | Світло надворі охололо... Він бачив, що вони розмовляли у невеличкому дворику внизу. |
| 5. The predicative: | |
| "The sun was up...". (Stevenson) | «Я ж іще при здоров'ї. (Гуцало) |
| 6. The adverbial modifier of cause and purpose: | |
| "Why do you say that?". (Maugham) "Why don't you like those cousins, Father". (Galsworthy) | Чому ти це кажеш? Пилипко боявся, щоб згарячу не наткнутися на що-небудь... (Мирний) |
ADVERBIAL WORDS OR STATIVES.Statives in English and Ukrainian are invariable notional words whose logico-grammatical function is to denote the physical state of persons, things or phenomena, the psychological state of persons, state in motion, etc. English statives have a characteristic prefix a-formerly added to the roots of nouns, adjectives or verbs (cf. afire, aflame, alike, afloat, atremble. astride, ashudder, etc.). "The lamps were still alight...". (Galsworthy) "Her little resolute face..." was suspiciously eager and aglow". (Ibid.) "I woke at six the next morning and found George awake". (J. K. Jerome) "He had been ashamed and afraid". (Abrahams)
Ukrainian statives, on the other hand, are formed with the help of the following suffixes: -о: Романові стало і прикро і якось соромно (Минко); -а: Треба хазяїну на хутір... Шкода журитись, молодичко! (М. Вовчок); -е: Добре Чіпці у діда підпасичем. (Мирний)
The category of state may be expressed by means of nouns (in English by prepositional nouns only). Cf. "She seemed on fire". (Galsworthy) "You keep me in the know". (Ibid.) Сором сліп, що ллються від безсилля. (Л. Українка) Не раз пін Пуп у аідчаї. (Стельмах)
Statives in the contrasted languages rarely correlate lexically. Thus, English statives have mostly predicative verbs, adverbs or adjectives for their equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.
| "I lay awake a long time". (Galsworthy). | Я довго не міг заснути. |
| "Ruth was aghast". (London) | Рут була приголомшена. |
Exceptions: They were ashamed — їм було соромно. Треба хазяїнові на хутір... (М. Вовчок) The farmer has a need in going on some business to the hamlet.
Among other isomorphic features one more should be pointed out: some statives may have grading. Cf. He is more dead than alive. She was more ashamed than anybody else. Йому стало краще. Нам тут гірше, їй там було найкраще. Йому ще холодніше.
The combinability of English and Ukrainian statives is characterized by both isomorphism and allomorphism. Isomorphic are the following patterns of statival word-groups in English and Ukrainian:
Stative + Vinf.: afraid to answer; треба працювати.
St. + prep, + N: ashamed of the deed/step; соромно за хлопця.
St. + prep. + I: afraid of this/of everything; соромно за неї/за всіх.
St. + prep. + Q: afraid of the two/three; треба для /на двох.
Pertaining to English only is the combinability of statives with the gerund (cf. afraid of answering, ashamed of having said that). Some statives in Ukrainian may take instead a direct prepositionless nominal complement which is impossible in English. Cf. шкода праці, треба часу, сором сліз.
Far from common are the functions of statives in the sentence where they can be, in both English and Ukrainian:
a) As predicative: "Ruth was aghast". (London) І все-таки було тоскно... на серці. (Гончар); b) As simple nominal predicate: He, afraid? Мені їх не шкода, мені їх не жаль. (Шевченко)
Divergent is the function of the attribute, typical of English only (the child asleep, the house ablaze).