SYLLABLE
28.03.2011
07.03.12
The phonem:
1.types of notation
2. thedefinitions of phoneme and allophone, the types of allophones.
3. main trends in/of the phoneme theory
4. the functions performed by the phonem
TYPES OF NOTATION. Transcription is the method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and transcription way. 2 types:
-phonetic/phonetic proper/allophonic transcription
-phonemic transcription
The phonetic data isenclosed in squared brakets, slund breakets enclose the phonemic transcription.
In the former sounds aresymbolized on the basis of their articulatory properties, regardless of the ling. Func. They perform in the ???. In the latter the??? Are symbolized ??? which have a ling. Func. Phonetic trans. Is sometimes called “narrow transcr”, the other type – broad transcription. These transcriptions serve to the very different entities. Ph.trns. represents a sequence of concrete physical articulation, phonemic reflects a sequence of abstract functional units. Thus reflects particular theoretical point of view. There are several possibleways of transcribing the sound phonetically. For example the contrast between the long vowel [I:] may be reflected in the different ways. The symbol with one dot will show that the duration will be diminished, but it is not the length, it is the quality of the vowel which differentiates the twowords. In any type of trans. Each distinguishable sound is given its own symbol. The whole set of phonetic symbols is known as phonetic alphabet. Different terms of symbols are used in the two types:
-upper and lower symbols
-plus and minus
-dots, doubledots. Wavy bars above the line of print and suchlike.
Indexes (upper):
m’(small j)
m (n)
m(1)
ПЕЧАЛЬПЕЧАЛЬПЕЧАЛЬПЕЧА
PHONEME. Thera different opinions about its definition. ??? 4 main classes:
1. The mentalistic, or phycholigical view, phoneme – isan ideal mental image, or the target at which the speaker aims. The sound produced deviates ??? partly because the ideal repetition of thesound is impossible, and partly due to the influence exerted by the neighbouring sounds. According to this conceptions, allophones are varying materealization of it. The founder of this theory бодуен де кортуне, define the phonemas an image of the sound and, a m?? which speaker seems to reproduce. It is not possible to establish such ideal sounds, therefore this approach is an idealistic one cannot be inrestrictedly accepted by lingustists-> Leonard blumfield rejected this theory and preferreing to take aphysial viewof the phonem
2. The physical view by Daniel Jones. Jones defines the phoneme as family of related sounds. These sounds could such satisfy certain conditions: - should besimillatiry, shiuldbe related incharacter, - no membed of the family could may occure as the same phonetic contest as the ???. The extreme of this approach exludes all reference to the ?? criteria. Thisapproach is regarded as vulgary matearilsitc, since it used the phoneme ??? witout any reference to its abstract or fuctional meaning
3. Nikolay Trubetskoy, Jacobson, Blumfield viewed the phonem as the minimal sound unit, bu wich meanings can be differenciated, the so called
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4. Abstract view or the abtractionalconception of the phoneme. – Sossure, Луис Ельмслев. Regards the phoneme as the perceptionally independent unit. The majority of linguists agree that the phoneme has distsnctive function of Ph. In speech, some prefer physical features some psychological. Schreba defined the phonem as a real independent unit, which manifest itself in the form of realizations(allophoneme). The phoneme is a dialectical unity of the following aspects:
- Ph. Is material, real and objective
- Abstraction and gereralization
- It is a fuctional unit
It serves to perform the following functions:
- The constituted function
- The distinctive function
- The idetificatry function
Linguists state that phoneme is real, because it is exists in the form of speech sounds, it exists independently; 2. It is abstraction, because the speaker makes it abstract from its concrete realization; 3. The phoneme is a functional unit because it performs a number of fuction to form a one word or a word form different from another one.
F1 -Phonemes serve as building material for higher language units – words, etc.
F2 - Phoemes are capable for distinguishing words
F3 – Chains of phonemes serves to identify words and thus to decode the meaning thus being transmitted
The definitions of phoneme vary greatly from one linguist to another.
Schreba: phoneme –
Vasil`ev: phoneme – dialectical unity. Because all its 3 aspects determing one another being thus interdependent. The Phoneme is a mininmal abstract linguistic unit, realized in speech in the orm of speech sounds. It is opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of phonemes and words.
The distinctive function of the phoneme is the principle function the phoneme performs. Without it the phoneme will be non-existent. Subdivisions: word-, morpheme-, sentence- distinctive one. The schwa vowel realized in phoneme [ir]? Denotes the doer of the action and may be opposed to the phoneme [e], ??? which is a variant of the adjective forming morpheme.
Dreamer vs. dreamy.
Sleeper vs. sleepy.
Bath – path. Light – like
Sometimes the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole sentence. This function could be perform ed indirectly and directly. Indireclty thorugh the word distictiive functions with the help of word opposition:
He saw his cub – He saw his cup
Directly, without words being diferenctiated as vocabulary items in citation form:
He bought some paper – He bought some paper. The partitive meaning – the indefinite meaning
Give me some apples – Give me some apples. Дай мне немного яблок – дай мне каких-нибудь яблок.
The Phoneme is material, real and objective – its is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds. Phoneme !косые скобки, фонемическая транскрипция! – d –
Different realizations of [d] – labialized – dwell, dental – lead this, lateral plosion(release), nasal release(plosion), may heve no orderable release (plosiveless),
Another sound will display the diaphonic relation – [d] may have affricate release – дз – in Liverpool dialect, Cockney. Irish dialect.
Основной аллофон – the typical allophone, the subsidiary allophones – второстепенный аллофоны, may also be subdivided:
- The positional allophones – are those which are used in definite positions traditionally according to the all orthoepic norms rather than influence of the neighbouring sounds. Two positional allophones nelong the clear and dark (vilure) realizations of the [L] whose location is strictly determanied by the position of the letter, representing the vowel.
- The combinatory allophones – are those which exist due to the influence of the adjacent sounds. – dental variants, labialized,
Accommodation/адаптация – the same.
The phoneme is abstraction – the sounds perfomong similar function turned to be considered the same by native speakers. In other words, native speakers abstract themselves from all distinctions or all distctions between allophones and all pronunciation nuances. Because these differences has ??? in other terms native speakers do not diiferenciate allophons of one of the same phoneme, therefore linguists have good grounds to calin that the phoneme is an abstract unit, since it is an abstraction from the speech sounds. The articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme ( the bunch of functionally relevant distictiove features) – the invariant of the phoneme [d] may be described as occlusive, fourlingual and lineese??. All the articulatory features forming this ivariant are called relevant fetures. The articulatory features which do not serve to distinctive meaning are called irrelevant. E.g. if d will be replaced by [z], if its occlusive articulation will change for the constrictive one we have two different words – breed, breeze. In English it is impossible to oppose the aspirated [p] to its non-aspiriative correlate in the same environment for meaing differentiation. In other languages for instance in Syrian aspiration may count as a distctive or relevant feature.
Distictively irrelevant features may also be of two kinds, Genuianly incidental or redundant features, which may be present or absent in an allophone, or indispensible or concomitant features, those without which a phoneme cannot exist at all. E.g. aspiration and absence of voice are incidental featurs which may be lacking in certain phonemes, but no allophone of phonemes л, ш ж, щ are possible without articulatory obstruction.
The on-set – зачин
Coda - ??
Window - nd – only medial position
The nature of syllable, different theories:
1. The number of syllables coincides with the number of vowels
2. Expietry
3. The chest-past??? theory
4. The sonority theory
5. The articulatory tension theory
6. Теория громкости – развитая теория Щербы
The syllable is a language universal.
Sequences of consonants into syllables in accordance with ??? sonority scale. The inherent sonority of
speech sounds is their relative perceptibility. The prominence of the sound or the several sounds with uniform length, forth and pitch that on the same ???/ They should be graded on the following way:
1. Open vowels
2. Half opened vowels
3. Closed vowels
4. The approximants р, л, в, й
5. The nasals
6. Voice fricative
7. Voice stops
8. Voiceless fricatives
9. Voiceless stops
Another universal principle governing mainky the syllabification of polisyllanbic words is refer to as the principle of the maximal onset.
APPROVE – the sound [p] may occur in coda position, but the cluster [pr] will violate the principle of the sonority, but at the same time this cluster may be applicable to the onset position. Thus an analyst has the following two alternatives:
Ap-prove & app-rove.
In cases like this ??/ it is thedivision that maximaises the sound material in the onset. That is the most preferable of classification. The right division is – ap-prove. -> with the basic types of syllable in all languages. In polysyllabic word consonants occurring at the syllabic boundaries are expected to constitute the onset of the following syllable. Languages differ in syllabic structures the allow. The English language and our mother tongue has ??? 23 for English, 21 for Russian. Nontheless there exists various ?? for the conbsonant cluster in English and in Russian. The numder of consonants forming the engl .syllable – is three. The 1 sound fill be [s] the second [p,t.k] the third comes form the group [r l v y] eg splash-> greater variability in such combination in Russian, while the forth sound could be the sound {в . In code the number is diversed, The maximum for Russian is 3, English – as many as four consonsnt eg. Sixths, the basic divverense in E. and R. is in open syllable and closed syllable and short vowel and voiceless consonant in English coda. The sonorants may become syllabic after a consonant which can be accounted by the same sonority rule. Russian terminal sonorants do not form syllables with the consonants do not form consonants while precede them, owever in some cases they may become syllabic. E.g. Была в Останкине зима. Декабрь число тридцатое. -\- Декабрь тридцатое первое. Thus we see if the second example the sound Р becomes ?? for the stylistic purposes. Thera two alternative sources for looking up syllabic boundaries of any given English word
- EPD – Cambridge English pronouncing dictionary , Daniel Jones, Peter Roach
- LPD – Longman pronounciation dictionary by Jogn Wells.
These two sources agree on the following:
- Compounds should be divided into syllables according to the morphological principle
- A single consonant which appers between a two syllables should be attached to the preceding vowel.
Double peek consonants – краткие двухвершинные согласные.
- Hpwever the authors of the dictionaties following the different principles in attaching the syllable consonants to the syllable boundary either to the fisrt syllable (maximum) stress syllable – принцип максимального скопления согласных в ударном слоге. E.g. lei-di, in-vait-id.
- To the second syllable according to the maximum onset principle suggested by the compilers of EPD lei-di, in-vai-tid. – принцип максимального скопления согласных в зачине или принцип максимального начала.
Function of the syllable:
- The constitutive function
- Distinctive function
- Identificatry function ecognitive
STRESS. WORD STREES. THE DIFFERENT BETWEEN STRESS AND ACCENT IN ENGLISH, THE TYPES OF STRESS. THE MOST FREQUENT ACCENTUAL TYPES OF WORDS.
STRESS – in a certain property of syllables which makes them stand out more prominent than others it’s the degree of force used in producing a syllable. Word stress is a essential component of a word`s phonological form. The term stress – is a more general term than accent, This word is used to refer all kind of prominence. While accent is associate with international or pitch prominence. The tone accent to the combination “utterance stress” which is a greater prominence given to a syllable or a word, or a particular sentence. The domain of a word stress is a word where the domain of accent is the whole utterance of the actual running pitch. Features which participate:
- The force of excalation is greater which is connected with more energetic articulation
- The pitch of the voice is higher which is connected with the greater tenseness of the vocal cords and the walls of the resonance chambers.
- The quantity of the vowel is increased
- The quality of the vowel is different than that in the unstressed position
In the auditoryperception level a stressed syllable is a part of the word which has a special prominence. This fact is achieved by a combination of greater loudness and length, modification of pitch and vowel quality. There are some other segmental features features which may have ???
- Strong aspiration of voicless plosives before stressed vowels
- Greater prominence of long vowels and diftongs
- The English language and our mother tongue are reported to posses all these possibilities sometimes all simulteniusly sometimes only one.
Types of stress.
In different languages the most important feature stress types are classified:
- Dynamic or force stress – when the effect of special prominence is achieved mainly through the intensity of the articaulation. In European languages eng rus ger French stresses are predominantly dynamic.
- Musical/tonic stress – effect of prominence is achived mainly to the change of pitch or musical tone – in oriental languages, in Scandinavian languages stress is to be both dynamic and musical
- The quantitative stress – special prominence through the changes of the duration of the vowel which is longer in stressed syllables than in unstressed
- Qualitative stress – is achieved through the changes in the quality in the vowels under stress.
English word stress is traditionally described as dynamic. Russian stress is not only dynamic but also has some features of the qualitative and quantitative stress.
- Pitch
- Length
- Loudness
Thus pithc and length are the most important clues for sense perception in Eng. Whereas the vowel are desisive for Russian.
Phonetically there are as many degrees of stress as there are syllables in any word. Phonologically there are only three degrees of word stress:
- Primary stress
- Secondary stress
- Weak stress placed on unstressed syllables
However some linguists (American descriptivists – Henry Blisson) also distinguish tertiary stress – третичное ударние – occurs when a stressed vowel has a full quality. It follows the primary stress not precedes it.
There are two types of word stress – fixed or bound, and free or variable (разноместное).
На последнем – французский, словацкий, чешский
На предпоследнем слоге – польский, суахили, итальянский,
Variable location of stress: English. Russian. German. Spanish, Romanian, dutch and greek.
Word stress performs the following functions on speech:
- The constitutive function – builds up the sound form of the word
- Culminative function – when placed on a stressed syllable word stress is used to signal the signal of the word
- Recognitive function – the accentual structure of the word helps the listener helps the listener to identify the sequence of syllables as meaningful unit
- Delimititive function – signals either the beginning of the word or its end, thus pointing to stops of phonation between these words.
- Morphological function – word stress serves to signify the morphological class of the word
- Syntactic function – word stress distinguishes a compound word and a free word combination ( an adjective + noun combination in particular)
Hot-dog- hot dog
My sister likes washing-machines – My sister likes washing machines.