Обычаи и традиции англо-говорящих стран

 Введение

Объектом исследования моей работы являются обычаи и традиции англо-говорящих  стран. И я хочу сказать, что жизнь этих стран полна традиций и обычаев. Некоторые из них очень красивые, красочные и живописные и, кажется, весьма разумные; другие - любопытны, иногда забавны, иногда существуют лишь для привлечения туристов. Многие традиции появились очень давно и прошли многие столетия, другие – появились сравнительно недавно. Но некоторые из них давно пережили себя и стали обременительными и остаются лишь из-за известного английского консерватизма. Есть много традиций, связанных с историческими событиями, Парламентом, судом, университетской жизнью, а также традиции и обычаи, появляющиеся в каждодневной жизни.

Приблизительно одна треть населения земного шара разговаривают на английском языке. Для некоторых он является родным, другим – в силу исторически сложившихся обстоятельств стал вторым после родного. В странах, куда английский язык был привнесен, он искажается и трансформируется с учетом новых для него “условий жизни”,  “приспосабливается” к местным обычаям и традициям, принимая различные диалектные формы.

 Похожее случилось и с исконно английскими традициями. В разных местностях они приобретали собственное толкование и постепенно видоизменялись и даже до такой степени, что при сравнении вряд ли возможно найти схожие черты у старой английской традиции и у преобразовавшейся.

Цель моей работы – изучить обобщенный опыт жизни и традиций англо-говорящих стран. Для людей, которые собираются путешествовать по миру особенно важно знать язык, обычаи, традиции той страны, которую они собираются посетить. Невозможно, например, приехать в Шотландию и смеяться над их национальной одеждой - клетчатыми юбками; или, например, удивляться тому, что Королева Великобритании начинает свой день с завтрака - овсяной каши - и это уже давно сложившийся для нее обычай. Для того чтобы избежать такой ситуации, перед тем как ехать в какую-либо страну необходимо ознакомиться хотя бы с общепринятыми обычаями этой страны.

Одной из главных традиций большинства государств мира является празднование своего национального праздника. Во Франции это День взятия Бастилии, в США – День независимости, в Германии два национальных праздника – День освобождения и День республики. В нашей стране – День суверенитета.

А как обстоят дела с национальными праздниками в Великобритании? Будучи островным государством, Британия долгое время оказывала влияние на политическое и социально-экономическое развитие других государств. Проводя гибкую политику, Британия сумела принимать участие в большинстве международных военных конфликтах, не допустив военных действий на своей территории. Все это способствовало развитию высокому уровню жизни и благосостоянию английского народа. Англичане не ощущали особой потребности в национальном самоутверждении и в специальном дне для ликования по поводу того, что они – британцы. Народ Соединенного Королевства не испытывал нужды каждый год напоминать себе и другим, что, например, британский парламент, возраст которого перевалил за семь столетий, становится еще на год старше или что тред-юнионы  - самые старые профсоюзы в мире. Правда, в последние годы существования Британской империи был введен День империи, но отмечался он недолго, а выходным был лишь для школьников и учителей. В 1958 году его заменил День Содружества, который с 1966 года отмечается в июне как официальный день рождения монарха. Англичане рассуждают примерно так: «Мы уже достаточно веско заявили миру о себе, чтобы не повторяться теперь ежегодно». Но национальный праздник все-таки необходим для официальных целей – так, за границей послам полагается устраивать приемы в честь дня своей страны, они выступают по телевидению той страны, где представляют свою родину и т. д.

Национальным праздником Соединенного Королевства является день рождения монарха, о котором уже было сказано. А сейчас я хочу остановиться на том особенном, что характерно для некоторых англо-говорящих стран.

“Do you speak English?” with this phrase begins the conversation between two people, that speak different languages and want to find a common language.

It’s very good when you hear: “Yes I do”, and start talking. People of different countries and nations have to get along well with the progress in world trade and technology as well as with each other.

So it is very useful to learn foreign languages. Knowledge of foreign languages helps us to develop friendship and understanding among people.

English is very popular now. It’s the language of computers, science, business, sport and politics. It is official language of United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States of America, Canada, Australia. There are more than 1 billion speakers of English of the World.

Speaking a foreign language you are read papers, magazines, and original books by great writers, watch satellite TV Programs. If you like traveling you can go anywhere without being afraid that other people will not understand you. English is very important to find a good job.

USA

Independence Day

On July 4 the Americans celebrate their national holiday-independence Day. The United States gained independence as a result of gradual and painful process. By the mid 1700’s it became difficult for thirteen British colonies in the New World to be ruled by a kind 3000 miles across the ocean. The British Empire imposed high taxes upon the colonies.

In 1774, the First Continental Congress drew up a list of grievances against the British crown. This document was the first draft of the document that would formally separate colonies from England. In 1755, the Revolutionary War began. On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress presented a second draft of the list of grievances. On July 4 the Continental Congress approved the declaration of Independence. But the War of independence lasted until 1783. After the war Independence Day became an official holiday.

On July 4, Americans have holiday from work. People have day-long picnic with favorite foods like hot dog, hamburgers, potato salad, baked beans. Lively music is heard everywhere. People play baseball or compete three-legged races or pie-eating or water-melon-eating contests. Some cities have parades with people dressed as the original founding fathers who march to the music of high school bands. In the evening people gather to watch firework displays. Wherever Americans are around the globe they will get together to celebrate Independence Day.

Sport

Americans’ interest in sport seems excessive to many foreign visitors. Television networks spend millions of dollars arranging to telecast sport events. Publications about sports sell widely. In the US professional athletes can became national heroes.

Sports are associated with educational institutions in a way is unique. High schools have coaches as faculty members, and school teams compete with each other.

Nowhere else in the world are sports associated with colleges and universities in the way they are in the States. College sports, especially football, are conducted in an atmosphere of intense excitement and pageantry. Games between teams attract nationwide television audiences

The sport that is most popular in most of the world-soccer-is not well known in the US. The most popular sports are football and baseball, games that are not played in large number of countries.

Spots play such an important role in American life that the sociology of sport, sport medicine, and sport psychology have become respectable specializations.

Many Americans jog every day, or play tennis or bridge two or three times a week. They go on ski trips and hunting expeditions that require weeks of planning and organizing. In Americans’ view, all these activities are worth the discomfort they may cause because they contribute to health and physical fitness. That is probably why Americans are known as a healthy nation.

Americans are very fond of sport. The most popular sports in USA are football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey.

American football derives from the English game of rugby. It started at Harvard University in the1870’s. It is a game for two teams of eleven men on field. The object of the game is to have control of the ball and to score points by carrying it across the goal-line.

Baseball is a team game derived from the English game of cricket. It is played with a bat and ball by two teams of nine players each, on a field with four bases. Baseball is the national game in the USA and it is very popular in Canada too.

Basketball is a game which nowadays is popular all over the world. It was invented in 1891. During the ‘20s the first US league championship was organized. In the ‘70s the American Championship was divided into two leagues: the ABA (American Basketball Association), which does not exist any longer and which played with a blue, red and white ball and NBA (National Basketball Association).

The NBA is a professional league which still plays.

There are more activities which Americans take part in such as golf, swimming, tennis, aerobics, wrestling, etc.

Halloween

Halloween is a festival that takes place on October 31. In the us children wear costumes and masks and go trick-or-treating. Many of them carve jack-o’-lantens out of pumpkins. Fortunetelling and storytelling about ghosts and witches are popular activities.

Halloween developed from new year festivals and festivals of the dead. Christian church established a festival on November 1 called All Saints’ Day so that people could continue to celebrate their festivals. The Mass said on All Saints’ Day was called Allhallowmass. The day before All Saints Day was known all hallows Eve or Halloween.

The main Halloween activity for children is trick-or-treating. Children dress in costumes and masks and go from door to door saying “trick or treat”. The neighbors give children such treats as candy, fruit and pennies so that children do not play tricks on them.

Jack-o’-lanterns are hallowed-out pumpkins with face carved into one side. Most jack-o-lanterns contain a cantle inside. An Irish legend says that jack-o’-lanterns are named after the man called jack. He could not enter heaven because he was a miser, and he could not enter hell because he had played jokes on devil. As a result, Jack has to walk on the earth with his lantern until Judgment Day.

Fortunetelling an important part of Halloween. For example, a coin, a ring, and thimble were baked into a cake. It was believed that the person who found the ring would marry soon. And the person who found the thimble would never get married. Today people practice cardreading or palmistry.

People once believed that there were many ghosts and witches on the Earth and that they met on October 31 to worship the devil. Today, people do not believe in ghosts and witches but they like to tell stories about them on Halloween.

Thanksgiving

Almost in every culture in the world there is a celebration of thanks for rich harvest. The American Thanksgiving began as a feast of thanksgiving almost four hundred years ago.

In 1620, a religious community sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to settle in the New World. They settled in what is now known as the state of Massachusettes. Their first winter in America was difficult. They arrived too late to grow a rich harvest. Moreover, half the colony died  from disease. The following spring the Iroquois Indians taught them how to grow corn. Indians showed them also how to grow other crops and how to hunt and fish.

In the autumn of 1621 they got a beautiful harvest of corn, barley, beans and pumpkins. The colonists had much to be thankful for, so they planned a feast. Local Indian chief and ninety Indians were present. The colonists learned from Indians how to cook cranberries and dishes of corn and pumpkins.

In following years many of the colonists celebrated the harvest with a feast of thanks. After the United States gained independence, Congress recommended one yearly day of thanksgiving for the whole country. Later George Washington suggested the date November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Than, after the civil war, Abraham Lincoln suggested the last Thursday in November to be the day of thanksgiving.

On Thanksgiving Day, family members gather at the house of an older relative, even if they far away. All give thanks for everything good they have. Charitable organizations offer traditional meal to homeless.

Foods, eaten at the first thanksgiving, have become traditional. The traditional thanksgiving meal consists of roast turkey stuffed with herb-flavored bread, cranberry jelly, mashed potatoes, pumpkin pie. Other dishes may vary as to region: ham, sweet potatoes, creamed corn.

Christmas

Christmas is Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. For millions of Christmas throughout the world it is the happiest and the busiest time of the year. No one knows the exact date of Christ’s birth but most Christians celebrate Christmas on December 25. The world Christmas comes from Christes maesse, an early English phrase that means Mass of Christ.

People of different countries celebrate Christmas in various ways. People in the United States and Canada decorate their homes with Christmas trees, wreaths and ornaments. City streets are filled with colored lights; the sound of bells and Christmas carols can be heard everywhere.

Children write letters to Santa Claus and tell him what presents they would like to get. Many department stores hire people to a Santa Claus costume and listen to children’s requests. People send Christmas cards to relatives and friends. Many companies give presents to their employees.

A Christmas tree is one of the main symbols of Christmas in most homes. Relatives and friends may join in trimming the tree with lights, tinsel, and colorful ornaments. Presents are placed under the tree. On Christmas Eve or Christmas morning, families open their presents. Many children believe that Santa Claus arrives on Christmas Eve in a sleigh pulled by reindeer and brings present. Some children hang up stockings so Santa Claus can fill them with candy, fruits and other small gifts.

In many parts of the United States and Canada groups of people walk from house to house and sing Christmas carols. Some people give singers money or small gifts or invite them for a warm drink. Many people attend church services on Christmas Eve or Christmas morning. They listen to readings from Bible and singing Christmas carols.

A traditional Christmas dinner consist of stuffed turkey, mashed potatoes, cranberry sauce a variety of other dishes. Some families have ham or roast goose instead of turkey. Pumpkin pie, plum pudding, and fruitcake are favorite desserts.

Valentine’s Day

There are several legends about St. Valentine’s Day. One of the legends says that Valentine was Christian pries who lived in the 3 century A.D. he was put into prison by roman authorities for his teachings and was beheaded on February cured his jailer’s daughter of her blindness. Before the execution he wrote her a letter signed “From Your Valentine”. Another legend says that the same Valentine wrote to children and friends who loved him from the jail.

According to another legend, Valentine was an Italian bishop who lived at about the same time. He was thrown into prison because he secretly married couples, contrary to the laws of the Roman Empire. The legend says that he was burnt at the stake.

February 14 was also a Roman holiday. On this day young men randomly chose the name of the girl to escort to the festival. The custom of choosing a sweetheart on this day became very popular in the medieval Europe. Later this custom spread to American colonies.

Now, St. Valentine’s Day is the day of sweethearts. On this day, people show their friends relatives and loved ones that they care. People send candy of flowers to those whom they love. Most people send “valentines”, greeting cards named after St. Valentine’s letters written from jail. Valentines can be sentimental and romantic, or funny and friendly. Valentines can be anonymous. Valentines can be heard-shaped or can carry hearts on them. People buy valentines or make them themselves.

England

England is the largest and the richest country of Great Britain. The capital of England is London but there are other large industrial cities, such as Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and other famous and interesting cities such as York, Chester, Oxford and Cambridge.

Stonehenge is a one of the most famous prehistoric places in the world. This ancient circle of stones stands in South-west England. It measures 30 metres across and made with massive blocks of stone up to four metres high. Why it was built is a mystery.

Not far from Stonehenge stands Salisbury Cathedral. It is a splendid example of an English Gothic Cathedral; inside there is one of four copies of Magna Charta and the oldest clock in England.

Chester is very important town in the north-west of England. In the past it used to be a Roman fort; its name comes from the Latin word castra, meaning “fortified camp”. In Chester there is a famous museum which contains over 5000 ancient and modern toys.

Oxford is the home of the oldest university of England. The most famous college is Christ Church. It has a great hall which was build during the reign of Henry 8 and its chapel has become the Cathedral of Oxford. Cambridge is the capital of Britain’s second oldest university.

York was the capital of Northern England. It is one of the best preserved medieval cities of Europe. It was build by Romans, conquered by Anglo-Saxons and ruled by the Vikings. Birmingham is often called the “City of 1500 trades” because of the great variety of its industries.

Ways of Everyday Live

Very often when speaking of English traditions we think first of some curious theatrical ceremonies of the court* or parliament procedure. There come to our mind the medieval uniforms of the guards, the solemn cloaks and wigs of the judges or the top hats (bowlers) and the invariable umbrellas of the clerks of the London City.

But the word “tradition” does not mean only that. First and foremost “tradition” is the generally accepted made or way of living, acting, behaving of just doing things. There are many very good traditions of this kind in the everyday life of the English.

Everything is the Other Way Round

In England everything is the other way round. On Sunday on the Continent even the poorest person puts on his best suit, tries to look respectable, and at the same time the life of the country becomes gay and cheerful; in England even the richest peer or motor-car manufacturer dresses in some peculiar rags, does not shave, and the country becomes dull and dreary.

On the Continent there is one topic, which should be avoided – the weather; in England, if you do not repeat the phrase “Lovely day, isn’t it?” at least two hundred times a day, you are considered a bit dull. On the Continent Sunday papers appear on Monday; in England – a country of exotic oddities – they appear on Sunday.

On a continental bus approaching a request stop the conductor rings the bell if he wants his bus to go on without stopping; in England you ring the bell if you want the bus to stop. On the Continent people have good food; in England people have good table manners.

On the Continent public orators try to learn to speak fluently and smoothly; in England they take a special course in Oxonian stuttering.

On the Continent learned person love to quote Aristotle, Horace, Montaigne and show off their knowledge; in England only uneducated people show off their knowledge, nobody quotes Latin or Greek authors in the course of a conversation, unless he has never read them.

Continental people are sensitive and touchy; the English take everything with an exquisite sense of humour – they are only offended if you tell them that they have no sense of humour.      

People on the Continent either tell you the truth or lie; in England they hardly ever lie, but they would not – dream of telling you the truth.

Many continentals think life is a game; the English think cricket is a game.

Lunch at 1 o’clock

Many foreigners are sometimes taken aback when they are faced with this typically English custom for the first time.

Whatever one is doing, no matter how important it is, or seems to be – a parliamentary debate or any kind of business routine – as soon as the clock strikes one everybody breaks for lunch.

The time from one to two o’clock is a “sacred” hour in England. And it appears to be not only good for health – having meals at regular times is certainly healthy – but it is very convenient socially as well. Everybody knows that there is no use trying to get in touch with some official, business executive or firm representative at this time. They won’t be in. it is no use no waste your time going from one shop to another at one o’clock sharp they will open. For punctuality is also one of the English traditions.

English Sunday

The so called Sunday Observance laws* prohibiting all kind of public entertainment on Sunday date back to the 17-18 century. The idea was to encourage people to go church and not to allow them “to profane the Lord’s Day” by amusing themselves.

Three hundred years have passed since then. Church services are attended by fewer people now than some decades ago. But the old custom of having a quiet Sunday is still alive. This is another English tradition preserved by law.

On Sunday you may visit a museum or go to a concert but all shops, theatres, dance and music halls are closed. This is rather illogical when compared with the unrestricted variety programmes on radio and television or the fact that one can always go to the bingo-club to enjoy himself or to the cinema to see a “thriller” or the latest American “hit”.

Pubs* and restaurants are open only from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 10 p.m. The police are very strict and do not hesitate to withdraw the licence from the proprietors who disregard closing time.

English Tea

The trouble with the tea is that originally is was quite a good drink. So a group of the most eminent British scientists put their heads together, and made complicated biological experiments to find a way of spoiling it. To eternal glory of British science their labour bore fruit. They suggested that if you do not drink it clear, or with lemon or rum and sugar, but pour a few drops of cold milk into it, and no sugar at all, the desired object is achieved. Once this refreshing, aromatic, oriental beverage was successfully transformed into colorless and tasteless gargling-water*, it suddenly became the national drink of Great Britain and Ireland – still retaining, indeed usurping, the high-sounding title of tea.

There are some occasions when you must not refuse a cup of tea, otherwise you are judged an exotic and barbarous bird without any hope of ever being able to take your place in civilized society.

If you are invited to an English home, at five o’clock in the morning you get a cup of tea. It is either brought in by a heartily smiling hostes or an almost malevolently silent maid. When you are disturbed in your sweetest morning sleep you must not say: “Madame (or Mabel), I think you are a cruel, spiteful and malignant person who deserved to be shot.” On the contrary, you have to declare with your best five o’clock smile: “Thank you so much. I do adore a cup of early morning tea, especially early in the morning.” If they live you alone with the liquid, you may pour it down the washbasin.

Than you have tea for breakfast; then you have tea at eleven o’clock in the morning; then after lunch; then you have tea for tea; then for supper; and again at eleven o’clock at night. You mast not refuse any additional cups of tea under the following circumstances: is it is hot; if it is cold; if you are tired; if anybody thinks that you might be tired; if you are nervous; if you are gay; before you go out; if you have just returned home; if you feel like it; if you do not feel like it; if you have had no tea for some time; if you have just had a cup…

Fireplaces

In English homes, the fireplace has always been, until recent times, the natural center of interest in a room. People may like to sit at a window on a summer day, but for many months of the year prefer to sit round the fire and watch the dancing flames.

In the Middle Ages the fireplaces in the halls of large castles were very wide. Only wood was burnt, and large logs were carted in from the forests, and supported as they burnt, on metal bars. Such wide fireplaces may still be seen in old inns, and in some of them there are even seats inside the fireplace.

Elizabethan fireplaces often had carved stone or woodwork over the fireplace, reaching to the ceiling. There were sometimes columns on each side of the fireplace. In the 18^th century, place was often provided over the fireplace for a painting or mirror.

When coal fires became common, fireplaces became much smaller. Grates were used to hold the coal. Above the fireplace there was usually a shelf on which there was often a clock, and perhaps framed photographs.

Pubs

Do you know what a pub is? The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines it as a public house or building where people go to drink and to meet their friends. English men like to get together in the pub in the evening. The usual opening hours for pubs are on weekends from 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. On Sundays pubs may remain open for not more than 5 and a half hours.

Pubs usually have two drinking rooms called bars - the public and the sa­loon bar, which is more comfortable but more expensive. "Bar" also means the counter at which drinks are served.

Pubs serve alcoholic and other drinks and often light meals. The main drink served in pubs, is, of course, beer, light or dark. Light beer is usually called bit­ter. As for other kinds of alcohol, most pubs serve whisky, gin and wine. Beer is always sold in pint or half-pint glasses. A pint is equivalent to 0.57 liter No alcoholic drinks may be served to young people under eighteen un­der British law.

In Great Britain today there are some 80,000 pubs situated in different cities, country towns, villages, and so on. Of London's 5.000 pubs some of the most interesting are right by the River Thames, downstream as well as up. Every English pub has its own sign and name. Some people refer to pub signs as a great open-air portrait gallery, which covers the whole country. But actually this gallery includes far more than portraits.

Some pub signs present different types of transport such as coaches, trams, ships, airplanes and even flying boards. There are signboards depicting animals, birds, fish as well as kings and queens, dukes and lords, sailors, soldiers, fat men and giants. A first class example of an heraldic pub sign is found near Leeds in

Yorkshire at Burley. The Butcher's Arms can be seen in Gloucestershire on a small typical English country pub near Sheepscombe.

At Cheltenham also in the same county you will see a sign showing the head of a horse, the name of the pub being Nags Head. At the vil­lage of Slad, also in Gloucestershire you can have a pint of lager in Woolpack and this pub sign shows a horse with two heavy packs of wool slung over it.

In Wales the most attractive sign in a number of pubs share the name of Market Tavern because all of them are on the pubs adjoining the market place.

In London the famous Sherlock Holmes pub with the big portrait of the famous detective smoking his favourite pipe attracts thousands of visitors to Northumberland Avenue.

History, geography, fairytales are kept alive by the name or sign of the "local" (the neighbourhood pub). As history is being made, so the owners of the pubs - usually the brew­ery companies - and individual publicans are quick to record it by new signs. Typical example is the "Sir Francis Chichester" named after the first man to sail alone around the world.

Not all British pubs have individual signboards, but a con­siderable effort is being made now to retain old signs. Jerome K. Jerome, the creator of the interna­tionally known book "Three Men In a Boat" over a hundred years ago re­vealed himself at probably his most authoritative intro matter or pubs. He clearly was a pub man and you can consider his famous book not only a guidebook to the Thames but as the first of those now familiar surveys of recommended places where to sleep, eat and enjoy beer. But in many pubs one can also enjoy some traditional pub games. There are darts, cards, skittles, coin games and various table games, of which playing darts is the oldest one.

Some of these games are difficult to find, as pubs have updated their amenities by offer­ing TV and video games, such as two-men tennis, fruit ma­chines, pinball machines, and so on. There are also other pub entertainments, such as piano playing, folk-singing, jazz performances and even theatres. However, if such table games as billiards or table football which are played with two or four players as well as cards, dominoes and coin games are known in this country, skittles and darts are less familiar.

Skittles is one of the oldest pub games and dates back to medieval England, the object of the game being to knock down as many skittles as possible with a wooden ball. This pub game has lots of varia­tions all over Britain. Darts is also an old game, ' which was played by the Pil­grims in 1620 when they sailed, from England to the New World. That is why it is well known in the USA, too. To play this game one must first of all have a standard dartboard with numbers marked on it to indi­cate score. The outer ring counts double, the middle one treble while at the very centre is the bull (50) with its own outer circle (25). Dart players should stand at least eight feet away from the board. The aim of the game is to score as quickly as possible with the least number, of throws. The actual score a player must get depends on the variety of game he is playing. Many pubs in Great Britain have their own darts teams. So, if you come to Britain drop in a pub, enjoy a pint of bitter and a "tongue sandwich, which speaks for itself”.

It sounds funny to foreigners but when it is closing time, the pub barman calls "Time!" or "Time, gentlemen, pleaser!”

English Habits of Politeness

Some greetings in England are very informal: a simple “good morning” or a wave of the hand across the street is quite enough. Handshakes are only exchanged on a first introduction or as a token of agreement or congratulation. “Sorry” takes the place of “no” when you cannot do something for a person or give a positive answer in situation like “May I use your pen?”, “Do you know the time?” or “Have you any size seven shoes?”. “Pardon” is the polite way of asking somebody to repeat what he has said.

English people do not readily ask each other to do anything, they prefer to wait for a service to be offered before asking for it. If they do ask, then they say something like “I don’t really like asking you, but…”

It is considered polite to give up one’s seat a woman who is standing, to open door for her, carry things for her, and so on.

Manners in Public

Our manners in public, like our manners in our homes, are based on self-respect and consideration for other people.

It is really surprising how stingy we are with our “Please” when we ask anyone to do something for us. We unwillingly part with our “Thank you”, as if it were the most difficult and costly thing in the world. We don’t stand aside for others to pass us in the trams, buses or the underground. We don’t rice to let people pass us to their seats in the theatres or movies.

1.Not to make yourself conspicuous, not to attract unfavourable attention to yourself or others, here are some of the rules for correct behaviour in a public place.

2.Not to be conspicuous, don’t wear conspicuous clothes.

3.One should not talk loud or laugh loud.

4.No matter how trying the circumstance, do not give way to anger or uncontrolled emotion.

5.Never eat anything in the street, or in a public place (restaurants, buffets and cafes excluded).

6.Do not rudely push your way through crowds.

7.Never stare at people or point at them.

8.Do not ridicule or comment on anyone in public.

9.Reserve “affectionate demonstration” (kissing, embracing, etc.) for appropriate places.

10.Don’t monopolise the sidewalk, by walking 3 or 4 abreast, or by stopping in the centre to speak with someone.

When in the street keep to the right.

British institutes

Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. Parliament first met in the 13^th century. Britain does not have a written constitution, but a set of laws. In 1689 Mary II and William III became  the first constitution monarchs. They could rule only with the support of the Parliament. Technically Parliament is made up of three parts: the Monarch, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

The continuity of the English monarchy has been interrupted only once during the Cromwell republic. Succession to the throne is hereditary but only for Protestants in the direct line of descent. Formally the monarch has a number of roles. The monarch is expected to be politically neutral, and should not make political decisions. Nevertheless, the monarch still performs some important executive and legislative duties including opening and dissolving Parliament, singing bills passed by both Houses and fulfilling international duties as head of state. The present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II who was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953.

The House of Lords comprises about 1,200 peers. The house is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power but acts as an advisory council for the House of Commons. As well as having legislative functions, the Lords is the highest court of appeal.

The House of Commons consist of members of Parliament who are elected by the adult suffrage of the British people in general elections which are held at least every five years. The country is divided into 650 constituencies each of which elects one Member of Parliament. The Commons therefore, has 650 Members of Parliament. The party which wins the most seats forms the Government and its leader becomes the Prime Minister. The functions of Commons are registration and security of government activities. The house is presided over by the Speaker. The government party sits on the Speaker’s right while on his left sit the members of the Opposition.

Education in Britain

In England and Wales compulsory school begins at the age of five, but before that age children can go to a nursery school, also called play school. School in compulsory till the children are 16 years old.

In Primary School and First School children learn to read and write and the basis of arithmetic. In the higher classes of Primary School (or in Middle School) children learn geography, history, religion and, in some schools, a foreign language. Than children go to Secondary School.

When students are 16 years old they may take an exam in various subjects on order to have a qualification. These qualifications can be either G.C.S.E. (General Certificate of Secondary education) or “O level” (ordinary level). After that students can either leave school and start working or continue their studies in the same school as before. If they continue, when they are 18, they have to take further examinations which are necessary for getting into university or college.

Some parents choose private schools for their children. They are very expensive but considered to provide a better education and good job opportunities.

In England there are 47 universities, including the Open University which teaches via TV and radio, about 400 colleges and institutes of higher education. The oldest universities in England are Oxford and Cambridge. Generally, universities award two kinds of degrees: the Bachelor’s degree and the Master’s degree.

 Cambridge

Cambridge is situated at a distance of 70 miles from London; the greater part of the town lies on the left bank of the river Cam crossed by several bridges.

Cambridge is one of the loveliest towns of England. It is very green presenting to a visitor a series of beautiful groupings of architecture, trees, gardens, lawns and bridges. The main building material is stone having a pinkish color which adds life and warms to the picture at all seasons of the year.

The dominating factor in Cambridge is University, a center of education and learning. Newton, Byron, Darwin, Rutherford and many other scientists and writers were educated at Cambridge. In Cambridge everything centers on the university and its Colleges, the eldest of which was founded in 1284. They are 27 in number. The college is a group of buildings forming a square with a green lawn in the center. An old tradition does not allow the students to walk on the grass, this is the privilege of professors and head-students only. There is another tradition which the students are to follow: after sunset they are not allowed to go out without wearing a black cap and a black cloak.

The University trains about 7.000 students. They study for 4 years, 3 teams a year. The long vacation lasts 3 months. They are trained by a tutor; each tutor has 10-12 students reading under his guidance. There is a close connection between the University and colleges, through they era separate in theory and practice.

A college is a place where you live no matter what profession you are trained for; so that students studying literature and those trained for physics belong to one and the same college. However the fact is that you are to be a member of a college in order to be a member of the University.  

The students eat their meals in the college dining-hall. At some colleges there is a curious custom known as “sooncing”. If a should come late to dinner or not be correctly dressed or if he should break one of the little unwritten laws of behaviour, then the senior student present may order him to be “soonced”. The Butler brings in a large silver cup, known as “sconce cup”, filled with offender, who must drink it in one attempt without taking the cup from his lips. (It holds two and half pints). If he succeeds then the senior student pays for it, if not, the cup is passed round the table at the expense of the student who has been “sconced”. Now the origin of this custom.

 Until 1954, undergraduates (students studying for the first degree) had to wear cloaks, called gowns, after dark, but now they are only obliged to wear them for dinner and some lectures. This tradition is disappearing, but one which is still upheld is that of punting on the Cam. It is a favorite summer pastime for students to take food, drink, guitars (or, alas, transistor radios) and girl friends on to a punt (a long, slim boat, rather like a gondola) and sail down the rive, trying very hard to forget about exams. Many students feel that they have not been christened into the University until they have fallen into the River Cam. This has almost become a tourist attraction.

Students also have an official excuse to “let themselves loose” once a year (usually in November) on Rag Day*.

On this day, hundreds of different schemes are thought up to collect money for charity, and it is not unusual to see students in the streets playing guitars, pianos, violins, singing, dancing, eating fire, fishing in drains for money, or even just lying in beds suspended over the street swinging a bucket for money to be thrown into.

On May 21^st every year, Eton College and King’s College, Cambridge, honour the memory of their founder, Henry VI, who died very suddenly, and was almost certainly murdered, in the Tower of London on that day in 1471. he is generally supposed to have been killed whilst at prayer in the Oratory of the Wakefield Tower, and here, on the anniversary, the Ceremony of the lilies and Roses now takes place. Representatives of both colleges walk in procession with Beefeaters and the Chaplain of the Tower, and the short service is conducted by the latter, during which a player composed by Henry himself is said. A  marble tablet in the in the Oratory marks the place where the King is believed to have died, and on each side of it flowers are laid - lilies from Eton bound with pale blue silk, and white roses from King’s College, bound with purple ribbon. They are left there for twenty-four hours, and then they are burnt.                                 

Transport in Britain

You can reach England either by plane, by train, by car or by ship. The fastest way is by plane. London has three international airports: Heathrow, the largest, connected to the city by underground; Gatwick, south of London, with a frequent train service; Luton, the smallest, used for charter flights.

If you go to England by train or by car you have to cross the Channel. There is a frequent service of steamers and ferry-boats which connect the continent to the south-east of England. 

People in Britain drive on the left and generally overtake on right. The speed limit is 0 miles per hour (50km/h) in towns and cities and 70 mph (110 km/h) on motorways.

When you are in London you can choose from different means of transport: bus, train, underground or taxi. The typical bus in London is a red double-decker. The first London bus started running between Paddington and the City in 1829. It carried 40 passengers and cost a shilling for six kms.

The next to arrive were the trains; now there are twelve railway stations in London. The world’s first underground line was opened between Baker St. and the City in 1863. Now there are ten underground lines and 273 underground is also called the Tube, because of the circular shape of its deep tunnels.

British Literature

Great Britain gave the world a lot of talented people. Many famous writers and poets were born in Great Britain.

One of the best known English playwrights was William Shakespeare. He draw ideas for his tragedies and comedies from the history of England and ancient Rome. Many experts consider Shakespeare the greatest writer and the greatest playwright in England language. William Shakespeare wrote 37 plays which may be divided into: comedies (such as A Midsummer Night’s Dream), tragedies (such as Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth) and historical plays (such as Richard II, Henry V, Julius Caesar, Anthony and Cleopatra).

Robert Burns represents the generation of Romantic writers. In his poems he described with love and understanding the simple life he knew. Among his well-known poems are Halloween, The Jolly Beggars, To a Mouse.

George Gordon Lord Byron. His free-spirited lie style combined with his poetic gift makes him one of the most famous figures of the Romantic Era. His famous works such as Stanzas to Augusta, The Prisoner of Chillon, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Manfred draw readers into the passion, humors and conviction of a poet whose life and work truly embodied the Romantic spirit.

Sir Walter Scott wrote the first examples of historical novel; Lewis Carroll became famous when he published Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.

Places of Interest in Great Britain

Britain is rich in its historic places which link the present with the past.

The oldest part of London is Lud Hill, where the city was originated. About a mile west of it there is Westminster Palace, where the king lived and the Parliament met, and there is also Westminster Abbey, the coronation church.

Liverpool, the “city of ships”, is England’s second greatest port ranking after London. The most interesting sight in the Liverpool is the docks. They occupy a river frontage of seven miles. The University of Liverpool, established in 1903, is noted for its school of Tropical Medicine. And in the music world Liverpool is a well-known name, for it’s the town of “The Beatles”.

Stratford-on-Avon lies 93 miles north-west of London. Shakespeare was born here in1564, and here he died in 1616. Cambridge and Oxford Universities are famous centers of learning.

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument, presumably build by Druids, members of an order of priests in ancient Britain. Tintagel Castle is King Arthur’s reputed birthplace. Canterbury is the seat of the Archbishop o Canterbury, head of the Church of England.

The British Museum is the largest and riches museum in the world. It was founded in 1753 and contains one of the world’s richest collections of antiquities. The Egyptian Galleries contain human and animal mummies. Some parts of Athens’ Parthenon are in the Greek section.

Madam Tussaud’s Museum is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax models of famous people of yesterday and today. The collection was started by Madam Tussaud, a French modeler in wax, in the 18 century. Here you can meet Marilyn Monroe, Elton John, Picasso, the Royal family, the Beatles and many others: writers, movie stars, singers, politicians, sportsmen, etc.

Sports in Great Britain

British people are very fond of sports. Sport is a part of their normal life. The two most popular games are football and cricket.

 Football, also called soccer, is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom. England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own Football Leagues and national teams. Games are played on Saturday afternoons from August to April. In addition to the FL games there is a competition called the Football Associations Cup. The Cup Final is played at Wembley Stadium(London) in May.

Cricket is considered to be the English National game. Its rules are very complicated. Two teams of eleven men each play it, the player at a time tries to hit ball with a bat.

Golf is the Scottish national game. It originated in the XV century and the most famous golf course in the world, known as a Royal and Ancient Club, is at St. Andrew’s.

Lawn tennis was first played in Britain in the late 19^th century. The most famous British championship is Wimbledon, played annually during the last week of June and the fist week of July.

Those are the most popular kinds of sport in the UK. But there are many other sports such as rugby, golf, swimming, horse-racing and the traditional fox-hunting.

Scotland

Scotland is a country in the north of Great Britain. It is a part of the United Kingdom. Scotland is divided into three natural regions: the Southern Uplands, the Central Lowlands and the highlands and islands. A lot of places in Scotland are a natural paradise, still untouched by man.

The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh, well known for its castle. Glasgow is the industrial capital of Scotland. It us the third largest city in Great Britain. The typical products of Scotland are timber, whisky, salmon. Golf is the Scottish natural sport it seems to have originated in this country.

Scottish Traditions

The thistle is the national emblem of Scotland. This is how, according to a curious legend, this plant came to be chosen as a badge, in preference to any other. Many years ago the Vikings once landed somewhere on the east coast of Scotland. The Scots assembled with their arms and took their stations behind the River Tay. As they arrived late in the day, weary and tired after a long march, they pitched their camp and rested, not expect­ing the enemy before the next day. The Vikings, however, were near: noticing that no guards were protecting the camp, they crossed the Tay, intending to take the Scots by surprise. For this purpose they took off their shoes so as to make the least possible noise. But one of them stepped on a thistle. The sudden and sharp pain he felt caused him to shriek. The alarm was given in the Scots' camp. The Vikings were put to fight, and as an acknowledgement for the timely and unexpected help from the thistle,  the Scots took it as their national emblem.

The Scottish national costume  (Highland dress) includes a kilt worn by men. For day wear, the kilt is worn with a tweed jacket, plain long socks, a beret and a leather sporran, that is, a pouch hanging from a narrow belt round the hips. The Scottish beret - tam-o'-shanter - is a woollen cap without a brim but with a pompon or a feather on top, traditionally worn pulled down at one side.  It got its name after Tam o' Shanter, the hero of Burns's poem of that name.

The Clan     

The Gaelic word "clan" means "children", and the central idea of a clan is kinship. Nowadays it refers, as a rule, only to Highland families, in Scotland. A clan is a family, and theoretically the chief is the father of it, although not every clansman can be a direct descendant of the founder.

Many people in Scotland today will be surprised to learn that those who founded the present clans were not themselves always Highlanders, but included Normans (Gordon, Eraser), Bretons  (Stuart), Flemings  (Murrey, Sutherland). Irish (MacNeil), and Norsemen (MacLeod), Mac meaning "son of". Concerning that early period of their settlement, which was between the eleventh and four­teenth centuries, we must not be dogmatic on the subject of nationality; the important point is that all these were "incomers" to the Highlands.

When the incomers acquired their land they virtually took over a good many people who were living on it, and who, perhaps, were already formed into a family or clan unit. Gradually the old clan came to acknowledge the protection of their new leader, and at last built up a nominal kinship with him.  In course of time intermarriage made it difficult to determine how far this kinship was nominal and how far real.

Under the patriarchal system of clanship, which reached its peak in the sixteenth century, order of precedence was strictly observed. First, after the chief himself, came members of his immediate family, his younger sons and grandsons, and then the clansmen. All of them, whether connected by blood or not, owned a common heritage of loyalty as clansmen. In return for the help and support of his clansmen, the chief was their leader in war and their arbiter in peace. Even in the early days the king was, in theory at least, the "chief of chiefs", and as the royal power spread through the Highlands the chiefs were made responsible for the good conduct of their clansmen. Among the most famous clans were: Campbell, Fraser, Munro, Cameron, Stewart, Murray, MacDonald, Maclean and Mackenzie.

The great period of the clans declined by the beginning of the eighteenth century and the failure of the Jacobite Risings in 1715 and 1745 completed the destruction. But today clan societies flourish in Scotland and, perhaps more ' bravely, elsewhere in the world. These societies are acquiring land and property in their respective clan countries, financing magazines, establishing museums to preserve the relics, founding educational trusts, and - perhaps above all - keeping alive the family spirit.

The Tartan

Tartan is and has for centuries been the distinguishing mark of the Highlander. It has a long history. Evidence can be brought to show that as long as the thirteenth century, and probably earlier, Highlanders wore brightly coloured striped or checked tartan plaids, which they called "breacan". There is some controversy about clan tartans as such. Traditionalists state the Highlanders wore tartan as a badge so that they could recog­nize each other and distinguish friend from foe in battle. Like many theories, this looks well on paper, but in practice it seems to break down. Even though the old tartans were simpler than the modern ones, they could not easily be recognized at a distance.

On the other hand, various descriptions can be quoted to show that, in the Highlands, the patterns of the tartans were considered important. A district tartan is a very natural development in a country divided into small communi­ties. By the sixteenth century the particular patterns of tartan worn in a district were connected with the predominant local clan. But the study of the portraits shows that there was no uniformity of tartan even in the early eighteenth century.  Members of the same family are found wearing very different tartan and, what is more surprising, many of the men are seen to wear the kilt of one tartan and a Jacket of another. The history of develop­ment of tartan was sharply broken in 1747, when wearing of Highland dress was forbidden by law after the failure of 1745.

In the early years of the nineteenth century efforts were made to collect authentic patterns of each clan tartan, but this does not seem to have been very successful. The fashion for tartan was fostered by the amazing spectacle of a kilted King George IV at holyrood in 1822, and demands for clan tartan poured into the manufactures. The wave of enthusiasm for tartan outstripped the traditional knowledge of the Highlanders, and it was at this time and in response to popular demand that a great many of familiar present-day tartans became associated with their respective clans. Some of the patterns had previously been identified by numbers only, while some were invented on the spot, as variations of the old traditional patterns.

The term "Highland dress'' has not always meant the same thing. In the seventeenth century the ki1t was not worn. Clansmen wrapped themselves in a generous length of tartan cloth some sixteen feet wide. The upper portion covered the wearer's shoulders, and it was belted at the waist, the lower portion hanging in rough folds to the knees. In the eighteenth century, this belted plaid was superseded by the kilt. Modern Highland dress consists of a day-time kilt of heavy material, sometimes in a darker tartan, worn with a tweed jacket, while for the evening finer material, possibly in a brighter "dress" tartan, can be matched with a variety of accessories.

Food and Drink

What sort of food has Scotland to offer the stranger? Scotland produces a number of dishes: Scots collops - a savoury dish popularly known as "mince", small mutton pies which must be served piping hot and the immortal haggis. And no country has a greater variety of puddings and pies, creams, jellies, and trifles.

The excellence of Scottish soups has been attributed to the early and long connection between Scotland and France, but there are some genuine soups, such as Barley Broth, Powsowdie or Sheep’s Head Broth. Hotch Potch or Harvest Broth. Baud Bree (Hare Soup) is flavoured with toasted oatmeal and Cullen Skink is made with a smoked haddock.  

Plenty of ingenuity is shown, too, in the preparation of both oatmeal and milk. Porridge, properly made with home-milled meal and fresh spring water, and served with thin cream or rick milk, is food for the gods. Lastly there is the national oatcake, which is described as “a masterpiece” by the French gastronomes.

As a nation the Scots are definitely better bakers than cooks. To beat the best Edinburgh bakers one must go, it is said, all the way to Vienna. There is an endless variety of bannocks and scones: soda scones, made with buttermilk, girdle scones, potato scones, without which no Glasgow Sunday breakfast is complete. Also the pancakes, the crumpets, the shortbread that melts in the mouth, buns of every size and shape!   They are on offer in every bakery.

The Scottish housewife likes to buy her meat fresh and sees that she gets it. She likes the meat off the bone and rolled, as in France, and the Scottish butcher is an artist at his trade. Most of the cuts are different from England and have different names. Sirloin, one would understand, but what is Nine Holes?  Steak is steak in any language, but what is Pope's eye?

And then the puddings! The black puddings, the white puddings, the mealy puddings. And king of puddings, the haggis!  I once asked a Scot: "What's in a haggis?" His answer was: "I know. But I know no reason why you should. All you need to know is that it should be served with mashed potatoes and bashed neeps (turnips), and you must drink whisky with it. You will discover that the oatmeal in the haggis absorbs the whisky, and so you can drink more of it. What else do you need to know?"  "A recipe of haggis", was my answer. "Hell, well, here you are", said my friend: B ounces of sheep's liver, 4 ounces of beef suet (fat), salt and pepper, 2 onions, 1 cup of oatmeal. Boil the liver and onions in water for 40 minutes. Drain, and keep the liquid. Mince the liver finely, and chop the onions with the suet. Lightly toast the oatmeal. Combine all the ingredients, and moisten the mixture with the liquid in which the liver and onions were boiled. Turn into a sheep's stomach, cover with grease-proof paper and steam for 2 hours.

Although the Scots are not a nation of beer-drinkers in the sense that the English are, some of the best beers in the world are brewed in the Lowlands of Scotland. But however good Scots beer and ale are, it is universally known that the glory of the country is whisky. Scotch whisky was a by-product of traditional Scottish thrift. Frugal Scots farmers, rather than waste their surplus barley, mashed, fermented and distilled it, producing a drink at first called uisge beatha, Gaelic for "water of life", and now simply called whisky. No one knows when the Scots learnt the art of distilling, though it may have been before they arrived from Ireland in the fifth century AD, for in Irish legend St Patrick taught the art. The first mention in Scottish records of a spirit distilled from grain does not occur before 1494.

Today there are two kinds of Scotch whisky - the original malt whisky, made by the centuries-old pot-still process from barley that has been "mailed" or soaked and left to germinate; and grain whisky, made from maize as well as matted and unmalted barley. Most of the well-known brands of Scotch whisky are blends of many different grain and malt whiskies. The technique of blending was pioneered in Edinburgh in the 1860s, and a taste for the new, milder blended whiskies quickly spread to England and then to the rest of the world.

Barley is the raw material of the malt whisky distiller. The first process in making whisky is mailing - turning barley into malt. Mailing begins when the distiller takes delivery of the barley, usually in September or October, soon after it has been harvested. The barley is in grain form, and must be ripe and dry, otherwise it may turn mouldy and make properly controlled mailing impossible. The barley is cleaned, weighed and soaked for two or three days in tanks of water. Then it is spread on the malting floor, where it germinates for 8-12 days, secreting an enzyme which makes the starch in barley soluble and prepares it turning into sugar. The barley is regularly turned over to control its temperature and rate of germination. The warm, damp, sweet-smelling barley is passed to the kiln for drying, which stops germina­tion. It is spread on a base of perforated iron and dried in the heat of a peat fire. Distillery kilns have distinctive pagoda-shaped heads. An open ventilator at the top draws hot air from the peat fire through the barley. This gives it a smoky flavour, which is passed on to the whisky. The barley has now become malt  - dry, crisp, peat-flavored, different from the original barley in all but appearance. It is ready for the next stage in the process - mashing.  It is stored in bins and then it is weighed to ensure that the right amount of malt is passed to the mill below, where it is ground. The ground malt, called grist, is carried up to the grist hopper and fed in measured quantities into the mash tun. There the grist is mixed with hot water and left to infuse. This extracts the sugar content from the malt. The sugary water, called wort, is then drawn off through the bottom of the mash tun. This process is repeated three times, and each time the water is at a different temperature.

For centuries, Scotch whisky has been made from mailed barley mixed with yeast and water, then heated in pear-shaped containers called pot stills. The early Highland farmers who distilled their own whisky heated their pot stills in huge copper kettles over a peat fire. Smoke from the peat added to the whisky's flavour. Big modern distillers use basically the same technique. The vapor that rises in the still is condensed by cooling to make whisky. The shape of the still affects the vapor and so helps to give the whisky its taste. The most important single influence on the taste of Scotch whisky is probably the Scottish water.  This is why distilleries are situated in narrow glens or in remote country near a tumbling stream.

The whisky comes colorless and fiery from the spirit receiver. In the spirit vat it is diluted to about 110 degrees proof before being run into oak casks to mature. Today, 100 degrees proof spirit by British standards is spirit with 37.1 per cent of alcohol by volume, and 42.9 per cent of water.

Scotch whisky cannot legally be sold for consumption until it has matured in casks for at least three years. The time a whisky takes to mature depends on the size of the casks used, the strength at which the spirit is stored and the temperature and humidity of the warehouse. A good malt whisky may have been left in the cask for 15 years, or even longer. Air enters the oak casks and evaporation takes place. Eventually, the whisky loses its coarseness and becomes smooth and mellow.

There are more than 100 distilleries in Scotland and the whisky made in each has its own distinctive character. Some distilleries bottle part of their spirit and sell it as a single whisky; but most whiskies go to a blender. As many as 40 different single whiskies may be blended to make up the whisky that is eventually sold. So specifically associated with Scotland has whisky   he-come that the mere adjective SCOTCH requires no noun to be supplied in order that people should know what is meant.

Burns Night    (25 January)

The anniversary of the poet's birth, is celebrated in every corner of Scotland, and indeed wherever a handful of Scots is to be found. There are hundreds of Burns Clubs scattered throughout the world, and they all endeavour to hold Burns Night celebrations to mark the birth of Scotland's greatest poet. The first club was founded at Greenock in 1802.  The traditional menu at the suppers is cock-a-leekie soup  (chicken broth), boiled salt herring, haggis with bashed neeps (turnips), and champit tatties (mashed potatoes) and dessert.  The arrival of the haggis is usually heralded by the music of bagpipes. The haggis is carried into the dining room behind a piper wearing traditional dress. He then reads a poem written especially for the haggis! "The Immortal Memory" is toasted, and the company stand in silent remembrance. Then fellows dancing, pipe music, and selections from Burns's lyrics, the celebration concluding with the poet's famous Auld tang Syne.

Loch Ness and the Monster

Whatever it is that stirs in Loch Ness, it is no newcomer. An inscription on a fourteenth-century map of the loch tells vaguely but chillingly of "waves without wind, fish without fins, islands that float". "Monster" sightings are not limited to Loch Ness: Lochs Awe, Rannoch, Lomond and Morar have all been said to contain specimens. The Loch Ness Monster owes its great fame to the opening of a main road along the north shore of the loch in 1933. Since then, distant views of "four shining black humps", "brownish-gray humps" have kept visitors flocking to the loch. People who have seen the phenomenon more closely say that it is "slug-like" or "eel-like", with a head resembling a seal's or a gigantic snail's, while the long neck is embellished with a horse's mane. Its length has been estimated at anything between 8 and 23 metres, and its skin texture la "warty" and "slimy". Close observers, too, particularly Hr George Spicer and his wife who saw it jerking across a lochside road in 1933, have declared it "fearful".

It is not surprising that such waters, cupped in savage hills, should produce legends. Loch Ness is part of the Great Glen, a geological fault that slashes across Scotland like a sword-cut. The loch itself is 24 miles long, about a mile broad and has an average depth of 400 feet. Loch Ness has one direct outlet to the sea, the shallow River Ness, and it is fed by eight rivers and innumerable streams, each of which pours the peaty soil of the hills into the loch. Consequently, the water is dark. Divers working with powerful arc lamps 15 metres below the surface have been unable to see for more than 3 metres around them.

Over the past 40 years, sightings have been claimed by more than 1000 people. Most of the sightings were in bright sunlight conditions of flat calm, and several of the witnesses were trained observers - soldiers, doctors, seamen. Though many of the sightings were from a distance, witnesses have been convinced they were looking at a large animal, most of whose body was hidden beneath the water.

If it exists, it is most unlikely that the Loch Ness monster is a single animal. A prehistoric creature, living alone in Loch Ness, cut off from others of its kind, would have to be millions of years old. For the species to survive there must be quite a large colony.  The colony theory is also supported by nearly simultaneous sightings in different parts of the loch. According to naturalists, the chances of the creature being a reptile are remote. Though Loch Ness never freezes, its temperature never rises above 6°C and this would be too cold for any known species. Also, reptiles breathe air, and would have to surface more frequently than the monster appears to. Though most zoologists deny the possibility that a large and unknown animal might be living in Loch Ness, it is remarkable that the mystery continues; and it is perhaps more exciting than any final scientific solution.

Scottish Weddings

Everybody knows about Gretna Green, the famous Scottish village just beyond the border. In the old days runaway couples escaped from England to Gretna Green to get married. The practice started in the year 1774. In that year a bill was passed in England forbidding marriages of person under eighteen without their parents’ consent. In Scotland the legal age limit was sixteen - and still is for that matter. What is more, until the year 1856 the young couple could be married at once at any place in Scotland, without having to stay there for some time.

You may ask why all those young people chose Gretna Green for their wedding. After all, there are many romantic places in Scotland. The answer is simple. Gretna Green was the nearest village across the Scottish border, only ten miles of Carlisle, on the main highway. To get there took the least time and the least money.

The blacksmith at Gretna Green was always ready to perform the marriage ceremony at a small fee. The formalities were very simple. All that was needed was a declaration made by the young couple in the presence of two witnesses.  Visitors of Gretna Green can still see the old blacksmith’s shop and the famous marriage room in it.

The old tradition is still remembered. Many young couples who cannot get married in England because they are under age still think it romantic to go to Gretna Green. But today they must have enough money to stay there for three weeks.    

Highland Games

Perhaps the most distinctive event at a Highland Gathering is “Tossing the Caber” - or, as the sixteenth-century writer called it, “throwing the bar”. The caber is the trunk - of a fir tree 20 feet long and ten inches (25 cm) thick at the bigger end. Its weight is about 100 kilos and it needs two or three men to lift it upright with the thick end at the top. The competitor then lakes hold of it and rests it against his shoulder. He takes two or three steps and then throws it so that it turns a complete somersault. The straightest throw, that is nearest to 12 o’clock in direction, gets the most points. If none of the competitors is able to toss the caber, a bit is sawn off the end, and then, if necessary, another bit, until at last one competitor succeeds.

Another feat of strength is throwing the hammer. This has a long handle and weighs ten kilos. The competitor is not allowed to run, he stands still and sweeps it round and round his head several times.

For all events, except races, the kilt must be worn. For highland dances, of which there are many varieties, the competitors wear full highland dress. This includes a smart jacket worn with coloured buttons and a “sporran” or purse made of fur, which hangs at the waist. The mast difficult and intricate of the dances is the sword-dance, performed over a pair of crossed swords which must not be touched by the dancer’s feet.  

Wales

Wales is the country in the west of Great Britain. It is mainly a mountainous land with a chiefly agricultural economy and an industrial and coal-mining area in the south. The landscape is beautiful. Many English people move to Wales when they retire.

Cardiff, a large city in the south, was chosen as the capital of Wales in 1955, mainly because of its size. Since 1536, Wales has been governed by England and the heir to the throne of England has the title of Prince of Wales, but Welsh people have strong sense of identity. There is a Welsh National party which wants independence from the United Kingdom and the Welsh language is still used in certain parts of the country.

Welsh is an ancient Celtic language, similar to Breton, spoken in Brittany, France. In the 60’s Welsh was given equal status with English as an official language and is used in the law courts. It is taught in school and some TV program is broadcast in Welsh. However, only about 20% of the population speaks Welsh.

St. David’s Day  (1^st March)

Dewi (“David” in English), was the son of a Welsh chieftain. He was brought up as a Christian and went abroad to learn more about the life of a monk. Then he returned to Wales and founded many monasteries which became centers of religion and learning in the Welsh countryside. The monks lived a simple life of player, growing their own herbs and vegetables and offering generous hospitality to anyone in need. Because David’s holiness and his inspiring teaching, he was made a bishop. The center of his bishopric was in the settlement we now know as St. David’s on the Western tip of the country of Dyfed.

David is thought to have died on 1^st march, AD 589, and his shrine at St. David’s was a place of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages. Later, when people of North and South Wales became one nation, he was chosen as the patron saint of Wales.

A legend tells how David suggested that his people should wear a leek in their bonnets during battles so that they could be easily recognized; Welsh Guards are still distinguished by a green and white plume in their black bearskins. At Windsor, on the Sunday nearest St. David’s day, it is now a tradition that every member of the Brigade of Welsh Guards is given a leek by a member of the Royal Family. However, as St. David’ Day is celebrated at the beginning of Spring when daffodils, are blooming, this flower has become a second, more graceful emblem of Wales. David’s own emblem is a dove.

It is said that David had a sweet singing voice. He encouraged his monks to sing as well as possible for the glory of God, and perhaps this was the beginning of the Welsh tradition of fine made-voice choirs.

Many churches are dedicated to David in southwest Wales, and if you are traveling there, you might visit the cathedral at St. David’s. Other places too are called after the saint, and you may visit Llandewi or Capel Dewi or Ffynor Dewi  

 The Welsh "national" costume

Seen on the dolls and postcards is largely a myth created for tourism. Certainly, the seventeenth-century country women wore long coloured skirts, a white apron and a tall black hat, but so did English women at that time. In the nineteenth century, the idea of a national costume was born and this pleased both tourists and locals, although there is no evidence at all of a long-lost costume.

The Welsh Eisteddfodau 

No country in the world has a greater love of music and poetry than the people of Wales. Today, Eisteddfodau are held at scores of places throughout Wales, particularly from May to early November. The habit of holding similar events dates back to early history, and there are records of competitions for Welsh poets and musicians in the twelfth century. The Eisteddfod sprang from the National Assembly of Bards. It was held occasionally up to 1B19, but since then has become an annual event for the encouragement of Welsh literature and music and the preservation of the Welsh language and ancient national customs.

The Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales is held annually early in August, its actual venue varying from year to year. It attracts Welsh people from all over the world. The programme Includes male and mixed choirs, brass-band concerts, many children's events, drama, arts and crafts and, of course, the ceremony of the Crowning of the Bard.

Next in importance is the great Llangollen International Music Eisteddfod. held early in July and attended by competitors from many countries, all wearing their picturesque and often colourful national costumes. It is an event probably without parallel anywhere in the world. There are at least  twenty-five other major Eisteddfodau from May to November. In addition to the Eisteddfodau, about thirty major Welsh Singing festivals are held throughout Wales during the same period of time.

Lovespoons 

Lovespoons were given by suitors to their sweethearts in Wales from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth century. The custom of giving lovespoons died out in the nineteenth century but they continued to be carved especially in some country districts. Making lovespoons became something of an art form and woodwork competitions and Eisteddfoday often had examples of the genre.

In recent years, interest in lovespoons has reawakened and many people seek them out as desirable keepsakes. Visitors to Wales, particularly from overseas, wanting something uniquely Welsh to remind them of their visit often choose a lovespoon. There is also a growing tendency for Welsh people themselves to give lovespoons as gifts to commemorate special occasions — a new baby, a birthday, an impending marriage, a retirement or to celebrate a success of some kind. Lovespoons also make excellent Christmas presents. Today, when most people have neither the tine nor the inclination to carve their own lovespoons, the accepted practice is to buy a ready-made example of the craft or to commission one of the woodcarver specialists to make one.

Since pre-history, beautiful, hand-carved objects have had ceremonial, romantic and religious significance: long incense and cosmetic spoons, for example, have survived from Egyptian times. In the Middle Ages, a pair of knives in a sheath was considered a worthy gift and it was common for a bridegroom to present his bride with one: such sets were known as "wedding knives".

The history of kitchen utensils and the spoon belongs to Western culture. The history of the lovespoon belongs to Welsh romantic folklore.

From the mid-seventeenth century, lovespoons were carved from wood in Wales and there is one dated 1677 in the collection at the Welsh Folk Museum in Cardiff. It is amazing that it has survived because wooden objects are not particularly durable.

From the seventeenth century, the custom grew for a young man to give a spoon to the lady who took his fancy. Thus, particularly attractive young ladies might be given a number of spoons from aspiring suitors. It may be that modern word, "spooning" indicating a closer development of a relationship, is derived from this practice of giving a love token.

Early lovespoons were carved from sycamore which was readily available in the low-lying country districts of Wales. The main tool used was a pocket knife. Those who made such spoons were amateurs and it was a way of passing the time on long winter evenings. Imagine a young man busily shaping a spoon in a small room lit only by candlelight or the glow of a fire.

Numerous examples of lovespoons have been found throughout Wales but the giving and receiving of a spoon did not develop into "a ritual of betrothal". Indeed, there is strong evidence to suggest that giving a lovespoon expressed a desire for a relationship and was not an affirmation that a relationship had already begun.

Some young men did not have the time or the skill to carve their own spoons and professional lovespoon carters emerged. It was again, a question of demand and supply. Spoons were bartered for or purchased from these skilled craftsmen and a tradition of spoons made by the same wood worker grew in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.  It was no wonder then, that the spoon became more decorative and elaborate.

A number of design factors should be mentioned in relation to spoon carving  including size,  weight,  color and the nature of the completed artifact. As far as size is concerned, the earliest spoons were little bigger than the modern teaspoon, their use was limited, and larger spoons soon came to be carved. This meant that the handles, in particular, could be more and more elaborate. As they became more decorative, the spoons were displayed by hanging them on the wall in the living room or parlour. The weight and type of wood used for such a spoon depended on the setting in which it was to be displayed. Softwoods were often preferred and the colour selected so that it would look good against a wall.

A great deal of imagination was used in the creation of lovespoons. This elaboration was gradual. Two or even three bowls were carved instead of one to make it more interesting and attractive. Eventually, the bowl became less important and attention turned first to the handle and then to embellishments or additions to the handle. Sometimes the handle was enlarged or made rect­angular in shape. At other times, filigree was added. The handle was pierced, cutting designs in fretwork or carving in relief were devices to add interest and meaning to the spoon.  In this way, symbols were incorporated: hearts, locks, keys, shields, anchors and wheels were favoured themes.

A heart or a series of hearts was the most popular expression of love used on spoons. These might be single or entwined to suggest that the boy and his girl would soon feel the same way about each other. As the spoons became more decorative, their utilitarian use ceased altogether and they were used more for display.  The heart was also an attractive and convenient device for suspending the spoon on a wall. Indeed, most spoons have a device for hanging them up, indicating that they were decorative rather than functional.

Anchors in particular were popular: the suitor has found a berth where he wished to stay. Many lovespoons were the work of seafarers who whiled away the tedium of a voyage by whittling. Besides anchors, ropes and cable designs often appear, as do vessels, steering wheels and various other nautical emblems.

Locks (keeping love or a lover safe), keys (unlocking love), miniature cottages and houses are recurrent themes with associations of lovers making a life together. The key may have a triple significance for it may indicate unlocking the door to the heart, it may indicate maturity (reaching 21 and the key to the door theme) or it may mean "let's live in marriage together".

Chain links look very difficult to carve and are another development of the whittler's art showing the woodworker's skill. Suggestions are that the links symbolically  "link"  the sweethearts  together  in  love and possibly matrimony.

It must be stressed that  many  assumptions have been made  about  the meanings of the motifs which appear on lovespoons. Imagery is always difficult to explain and certain motifs may have had more personal significance for the donor than can be appreciated by the casual observer. Spoons were not mass-produced but made by one individual for another and many relied on personal nuances other than symbols to convey meaning.

Some spoons are dated. If the couple eventually marry, they then become a keepsake of the suitor's original interest. Other spoons are personalized either by initials or by an emblem of the occupation or the interests of the donor or donor. Often a carver wishes to incorporate a date, a monogram, a motto, a name or a quotation into a carving. If he wants to keep it a secret, he may work the date or name into the design.

Nationalistic emblems such as a daffodil, a leek, the word Cymru or even a dragon are sometimes used, but they are usually to be found on modern spoons. Some spoons are intended to be in the nature of Valentines and to be anonymous. It is difficult to understand, though, that someone who had spent many hours creating such a gift would not want his work to be appreciated. Others are decorated with dual initials, those of the suitor and his lady or with a single initial when we are left to guess whether this represents the donor or the donor. But we must try not to read too much into the minds of the carvers of earlier days. Whatever we think, we cannot help being amazed by the consummate skill of these lovespoon craftsmen.

The Welsh National Game

Rugby is a form of football. It is named after Rugby School in Warwickshire where it was developed, though the exact date (1823 or later) is in dispute.

Rugby is the national game of Welsh team was thought to be the best of the world. The rules of the game are rather complicated but mainly involve the carrying of an egg-shaped ball over your opponents’ line and pressing it firmly on the ground to score a try. A team consists of fifteen players, eight of whom are usually much bigger and heavier than the rest. Their job is to win the ball so that the three-quarters can run forward over the line, trying to avoid the tackles of the opposing team. Often the heavier forwards can be seen pushing together in a scrum, trying to kick the ball backwards. Although the game seems to be similar to American football, the players are not allowed to throw the ball forward. Other point can be won by kicking the ball between the special “H” – shaped goal – posts.

When the Welsh side are playing at home at Cardiff Arms Park their supporters often try to encourage them to play better by singing the Welsh National anthem, “Land of My Fathers”. The sound of thousands of Welsh voices singing this famous song usually helps the Welsh side to score another try to win the game. Naturally they are especially pleased when this is against the English! 

Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, is still a part of the United Kingdom. It is made up of six countries: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Tyrone. One third of the population lives in and around the capital, Belfast. Belfast is also the mast important port and commercial and industrial centre. Some parts of the territory, those that are not close to capital, have remained mainly rural.

The Irish population is divided into two groups: the Protestants and the Catholics. The Protestants are of British origin. They are descendants of British settlers who came to Ireland in XVth and XVIIth centuries, during and after the Reformation. The Catholics are mostly natives of Ireland.

The Protestants were the majority and dominated the Catholics with strong discrimination. In1968 the Catholics began the movement for equal civil rights.

The fightings between the two groups of the population continue to this day.

Canada

Canada is the second largest country in the world. Only Russia has a greater land area. Canada is situated in North America. Canada is slightly larger than United States, but has only about a tenth as many people. About 28 million people live in Canada. About 80% of the population live within 320 km of the southern border. Much of the rest of Canada is uninhabited or thinly populated because of severe natural conditions.

Canada is a federation of 10 provinces and 2 territories. Canada is an independent nation. But according to the Constitution Act of 1982 British Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is recognized as Queen of Canada. This symbolizes the country’s strong ties to Britain. Canada was ruled by Britain completely until 1867, when Canada gained control of its domestic affairs. Britain governed Canada’s foreign affairs until1931, when Canada gained all independence.

Canada’s people are varied. About 57% of all Canadians have some English ancestry and about 32% have some French ancestry. Both English and French are official languages of the country. French Canadians, most of whom live in the provinces of Quebec, have kept the language and customs of their ancestors. Other large ethnic group are German, Irish and Scottish people. Native people-American Indians and Eskimos-make up about 2% of the country’s population. 77% of Canada’s people live in cities or towns. Toronto and Montreal are the largest urban areas. Ottawa is the capital of the country.

Today, maintaining a sense of community is one of major problems in Canada because of different among the provinces and territories. Many Canadians in western and eastern parts of the country feel that the federal government does not pay enough attention to their problems. 80% of Quebec’s population are French Canadians. Many of them believe that their province should receive a special recognition in the Canadian constitution.

History of Canada

Canada’s history is an exciting story of development of a vast wilderness into a great nation. Most experts believe that the first people who lived on this land came from Asia about 15000 years ago. They came over a land bridge that once connected Asia and North America. Their descendants are known today as Indians. The ancestors of the Eskimos came to Alaska after them probably about 5000 years ago.

In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian navigator in the service of England, found rich fishing grounds off Canada’s south-east coast. His discovery led to the European exploration of Canada. France set up a colony in Eastern Canada in the early 1600’s. Great Britain gained control of the country in 1763, and thousands of Britain emigrants came in Canada. In 1867, the French and English-speaking Canadians helped to create a united colony called the Dominion of Canada. Two groups worked together to settle the country and to develop its great mineral deposits and other natural resources.

Canada gained its independence from Britain in 1931. During the middle of 20^th century, hard-working Canadians turned their country into an economic giant. Today Canada is a leading producer of wheat, oats, barley. Canada also ranks among the world’s top manufacturing countries, and it is a major producer of electronic power.

Throughout its history, Canada has often been troubled by lack of unity among its people. French Canadians, most of them live in the province Quebec, have struggled to preserve their own culture. They have long been angered by Canadian policies based on British traditions. Many of them support a movement to make Quebec a separate nation. People in Canada’s nine other provinces also frequently local needs over national interests.

Australia

Australia is the only country in the world that also a continent. It is sixth large country and the smallest continent. Australia lies between the South Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. It is situated about 11000 km southwest of  North America and about 3200 km southeast of mainland Asia. The name of the country comes from Latin word “australis” which mean southern. The country’s official name is Commonwealth of Australia.

The Commonwealth of Australia is a federation of states. Australia has six states-new South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. Each state has its government. Australia has two territories-the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. The capital of the country is Canberra.

Australia is a constitutional monarchy like Great Britain. The nation is administered under written constitution. The British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is also queen of Australia and country’s head of state. But the queen has little power in the Australian government. She serves mainly as a symbol of long historical tie between Great Britain and Australia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations which is an association formed by Britain and some of its former colonies.

Australia is a one of the word’s developed countries. Australia has modern factories, highly productive mines and farms, and busy cities. It is the world’s leading producer of wool and bauxite. It also produces and exports large amounts of other minerals and farm goods. Income from the export enables Australian to have high standard of living. The most important trading partners of  Australia are Japan and the United States.

Святой Георгий или Вильям Шекспир?

Национальный праздник англичан – 23 апреля, день святого Георгия, их покровителя. В этот день проходят торжественные церемонии в соборе святого Павла в Виндзоре, а также в некоторых других местных церквах. Но 23 апреля, кроме того, день рождения и день памяти Вильяма Шекспира, и он отмечается намного шире.

Центром этого праздника небольшой (20 тысяч жителей) городок Стратфорд на реке Эйвон, где в 1564 году родился поэт. Городок живет памятью о Шекспире круглый год, по сути, он сам – музей, состоящий из десятка «залов»: это дом, где родился поэт, грамматическая школа, где он учился, дома его матери, жены, дочери, дом, где Шекспир провел последние годы жизни, приходская церковь, где он похоронен. И, конечно, Шекспировский центр, Шекспировский институт и Королевский Шекспировский театр. В городе всегда царит оживление. Существуют четкие маршруты экскурсий, открыто множество гостиниц, автостоянок, постоянно идут спектакли. Собственно, вся жизнь города подчинена приему гостей.

Но самый главный день в году – 23 апреля. Еще накануне съезжаются оркестры, самодеятельные ансамбли, прибывают послы и дипломаты иностранных государств. Повсюду продаются веточки ароматного вечнозеленого розмарина, которые вставляют в петлицы и носят в знак памяти. Утром организуется прием в Королевском Шекспировском  театре. ( Огромное здание из красного кирпича выглядит очень современно, но совсем не нарушает общего патриархального пейзажа – река, невысокие часовни, каменные домишки, разлинованные дубовыми досками; естественно  выглядят расположившиеся на траве прямо рядом с театром люди, конечно, если день выдается солнечный.) Из театра в соответствии со строго разработанным ритуалом торжественная процессия следует к дому, где Шекспир провел свои детские годы. В этом доме колыбель, железный обруч – прообраз детского манежа, парта, посуда.  Скорее всего будущий гений не пользовался этими вещами, и фраза  о «хранимом тепле его рук» прозвучала бы неуместно. И все же создателям музея удалось достичь более или менее достоверной, хотя и слегка приукрашенной, атмосферы, вызвать у посетителей благоговейный трепет. За домом разбит сад, в котором можно встретить  цветы и деревья, упоминаемые в произведениях Шекспира. Далее процессия движется мимо грамматической школы, где занятия идут (не прекращаясь!) с шекспировских времен, мимо Шекспировского института, куда съезжаются литературоведы со всего света, мимо дома, где жила, выйдя замуж дочь  Шекспира  Сюзанна и где родилась его внучка Елизавета.

Вот и Стратфордская церковь Святой Троицы, в которой похоронен Шекспир. Он предпочел это место всем другим на земле… Участники процессии возлагают на надгробье поэта цветы,  венки, букеты. Таков финал торжества. А кульминацией его является церемония поднятия флагов нации. На центральной улице города на высоких флагштоках развеваются флаги, среди которых вот уже более 60 лет и наш, советский. Вечером всех опять ждет театр. Театральный сезон в Стратфорде длятся восемь месяцев, и зрителям предлагается несколько пьес Шекспира. В репертуаре одного из сезонов пьесы «Генрих Y», «Ричард 111», «Гамлет», «Венецианский купец», «Тщетные усилия любви». У Королевского Шекспировского театра саамы большой коллектив в мире! В самом Стратфорде сейчас есть три филиала по двести мест  каждый. В Лондоне у театра еще два помещения, оба в крупном культурном центре Барбикан. Кроме того, Королевский Шекспировский театр много гастролирует. Пьесы Шекспира идут и в других театрах, например в «Русалке», в «Бэнк-сайде». В Редженс-парке в открытом летнем театре можно посмотреть «Сон в летнюю ночь» или «Виндзорские кумушки» на фоне необычных декораций – живых каштанов. Однако самое сильное впечатление оставляет игра актеров в Стратфорде. И зритель, как когда-то автор, выбирает этот городок…