1.5 Environmental–Organismic Information Exchange

Organisms interact with external environments. However, because organisms

are hierarchically organized living systems composed of subsystems,

processes, and components engaged in various operations, they have their

own internal environments as well. Following Brandon (1984, 1992), an

environment can be defi ned as any pressure or force that aids in the producing

of some change in the organism’s structure and functioning. We can

draw a distinction between the information that is exchanged within the

organism’s environment and the information that is exchanged between

the external environment and the organism. Thus, there are really two

types of environments, namely, environments that are internal to an

organism and environments that are external to an organism. In this

section, I further elucidate these two types of environments and the relationship

of these environments to the organism.

An environment is not limited to the external world surrounding an

organism. There are environments internal to the organism. For example,

the other organelles, nucleus, ATP, water, and various organic molecules

act as the environment for a mitochondrion in the eukaryotic cell. Also,

other eukaryotic cells, cancerous cells, water, and all kinds of organic

molecules and chemical elements act as the environment for a typical

eukaryotic cell. A myriad of molecules, including hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,

and oxygen, surround and exert infl uence upon organs in a multicellular

organism’s body. Further, a piece of food taken in from the environment external to the organism becomes part of the environment

within the organism and, depending on the content, may be digested

or expelled. These facts concerning internal environmental pressure add

to the picture of an organism as a hierarchically organized system. Within

this kind of living system, there are levels distinguishable from other

levels. One way to describe the distinction is by comparing a certain

level, say level(n), with other levels that act as environments exerting

pressures, exchanging data, and communicating information with

level(n).

At the same time, the organism itself is interacting with external environments

that are exerting pressures, exchanging data, and communicating

information with the organism. Concerning environments that are

external to the organism, we see that organisms are members of species

that live in populations. These populations usually coexist with other

populations in communities. Many communities living with their nonliving

surroundings comprise an ecosystem, and the sum of all ecosystems

make up the biosphere of the earth. Other members of a species, different

species, and the nonliving surroundings of an organism are all considered

parts of the external environment for an organism. The organism constantly

experiences environmental pressures, and these pressures can be

described in terms of information that is exchanged between the environment

and the organism.

External environmental information affects an organism in a one-way,

environment-to-organism, external-to-internal causal fashion. This kind of

information exchange can be witnessed as a result of research accrued and

experiments performed by biologists and other thinkers.

It is common knowledge that an organism’s survival is dependent

upon both genetic and environmental factors (Gould, 2002; Berra, 1990;

Mayr, 1969, 1976, 1982, 1991, 2001; Ayala, 1982). For example, if there

is an alteration in a rodent’s genetic makeup that causes it to have a

malformed foot, then it is more likely to be eaten by a hawk out on

the open range. However, if the same handicapped rodent lives in a

forested area where it can hide under rocks and bushes, it is less likely

to become a predator’s victim. Also, if an environment happens to be

made up of trees having fruit high up on its branches, and it just so

happens that a fruit-eating animal’s genes coded it to have a neck long

enough to reach the fruit, then such an animal likely will survive. Conversely,

if your animal genes coded you to have a short neck, it is

unlikely you would survive in such an environment (i.e., if the fruit

high up in the trees were your only food source). In the words of Berra  (1990, p. 8), “The environment is the selecting agent, and because

the environment changes over time and from one region to another,

different variants will be selected under different environmental conditions.”

These examples illustrate that there is a one-way, external-tointernal

exchange of information between an environment and an

organism existing in that environment.

Another famous example that illustrates the informational transfer

between the environment and an organism in a one-way, external-tointernal

fashion has to do with the fi nches that Darwin (1859) described

on the Galapagos Islands during his voyage on The Beagle. These fi nches

clearly exhibit adaptive radiation, that is, in the words of Berra (1990,

p. 163), “the evolutionary divergence of members of a single phylogenetic

lineage into a variety of ecological roles usually resulting, in a short period

of time, in the appearance of several or many new species.” Darwin noted

several different beak shapes and sizes that apparently were modifi ed in

the fi nches, depending upon the ecological niche the particular bird inhabited.

Some fi nches had massive beaks ideal for crushing their seed food

source, others had thinner pointed beaks ideal for probing fl owers, and

still others had curved beaks ideal for picking food out of woody holes. In

this set of circumstances, the environments the various fi nches inhabited

were all different, and the fi nches with beaks most fi t for a particular environment

survived to reproduce.

Phenotypic traits are the physiological characteristics or behaviors of

organisms that are under genetic control. The genetic information determines

what a particular member of a species will look like, how fast it will

run, what coloration it will have, how successful it will be at mating, and

so on (Carroll, 2005; Mayr, 2001; Lewontin, 1992; Gould, 2002; Gordon,

1992). In the fi nch example, the different beaks represent the variety of

phenotypic characteristics under genetic infl uence. If it just so happened

that a certain beak style was effective in gathering food in an environment,

then that fi nch would survive and pass its genes on to other fi nches. Soon,

that particular niche would be dominated by the beak style that was most

fi t for that environment. I will have more to say about the general evolutionary

principles of genetic variability and natural selection in the beginning

of the fourth chapter.

Research has been conducted on animals to determine how the external

environment affects the functioning of various systems of the body. One

experiment has to do with occluding or removing the eyes of cats, rats,

and birds at various stages of development to see if the neural connections

of the brain necessary to the visual system either would develop abnormally or would cease to function altogether. These studies indicated

that when occluding or removing the eyes, certain neural connections in

the brains of these animals would not be made. This resulted in the cessation

of certain visual processes, causing the overall subsystem to be underdeveloped

in relation to other animals that had not had their eyes

occluded or removed (Shatz, 1992; Shatz & Stryker, 1978; Clayton &

Krebs, 1994; Black & Greenough, 1986; Cziko, 1995). This research illustrates

what happens when information is not exchanged between environment

and organism.

A further example that demonstrates environment-to-organism,

external–internal information exchange has to do with research on the

fruit fl y, Drosophila. Experimenters are able to take out, move around, or

add genetic sequences in the DNA of the fl y, causing radical phenotypic

alterations to result, such as the deletion of some organ, legs growing

where antennae should be, and antennae growing where legs should be.

The experimenter’s adjustments to the genetic code of the fruit fl y are

analogous to the radioactive material and other kinds of natural external

forces of mutation that alter the genetic codes of fruit fl y populations. We

fi nd similar monstrosities in fruit fl ies when we study them in their

natural habitats (Duncan, Burgess, & Duncan, 1998). Just as researchers

tap into and alter the genetic codes of fruit fl ies in controlled experiments,

so too, external forces “tap into” and alter the genetic makeup of

fruit fl y populations in nature. These fruit fl y abnormalities are another

example of the property of environmental–organismic information

exchange found in organisms.

In this chapter, I have attempted to elucidate Mayr’s idea that organisms

are hierarchically organized living systems. So far, we have seen

that an organism is a living entity, the components of which are hierarchically

organized in subsystems and processes operating so as to

achieve particularized and generalized homeostasis. These subsystems and

processes possess certain properties including abilities to exchange data

fl exibly, convert data to information in a selection process, integrate

information, and process information from environments. Among many

other kinds of activities, organisms will engage in four basic operations—

namely, some form of fi ghting, fl eeing, eating, and reproducing—while

constantly interacting with environments. Given the consequent pressures

entailed in this kind of interaction, it makes sense that the subsystems

and processes of an organism be coordinated and unifi ed in a

systemic fashion, so as optimally to engage in these activities while

negotiating environments.

In the next chapter, after using ideas and arguments from this chapter

in support of certain forms of metaphysical and epistemological forms of

emergence, I give further elucidation to Mayr’s idea that organisms operate

on the basis of historically acquired programs of information, as well as

ratify Plotkin’s claim that biological phenomena only make complete sense

in light of evolutionary theory, by endorsing a hybrid view of functions

based in both the Cummins organizational and the Griffi ths/Godfrey-

Smith modern history accounts.

Organisms interact with external environments. However, because organisms

are hierarchically organized living systems composed of subsystems,

processes, and components engaged in various operations, they have their

own internal environments as well. Following Brandon (1984, 1992), an

environment can be defi ned as any pressure or force that aids in the producing

of some change in the organism’s structure and functioning. We can

draw a distinction between the information that is exchanged within the

organism’s environment and the information that is exchanged between

the external environment and the organism. Thus, there are really two

types of environments, namely, environments that are internal to an

organism and environments that are external to an organism. In this

section, I further elucidate these two types of environments and the relationship

of these environments to the organism.

An environment is not limited to the external world surrounding an

organism. There are environments internal to the organism. For example,

the other organelles, nucleus, ATP, water, and various organic molecules

act as the environment for a mitochondrion in the eukaryotic cell. Also,

other eukaryotic cells, cancerous cells, water, and all kinds of organic

molecules and chemical elements act as the environment for a typical

eukaryotic cell. A myriad of molecules, including hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,

and oxygen, surround and exert infl uence upon organs in a multicellular

organism’s body. Further, a piece of food taken in from the environment external to the organism becomes part of the environment

within the organism and, depending on the content, may be digested

or expelled. These facts concerning internal environmental pressure add

to the picture of an organism as a hierarchically organized system. Within

this kind of living system, there are levels distinguishable from other

levels. One way to describe the distinction is by comparing a certain

level, say level(n), with other levels that act as environments exerting

pressures, exchanging data, and communicating information with

level(n).

At the same time, the organism itself is interacting with external environments

that are exerting pressures, exchanging data, and communicating

information with the organism. Concerning environments that are

external to the organism, we see that organisms are members of species

that live in populations. These populations usually coexist with other

populations in communities. Many communities living with their nonliving

surroundings comprise an ecosystem, and the sum of all ecosystems

make up the biosphere of the earth. Other members of a species, different

species, and the nonliving surroundings of an organism are all considered

parts of the external environment for an organism. The organism constantly

experiences environmental pressures, and these pressures can be

described in terms of information that is exchanged between the environment

and the organism.

External environmental information affects an organism in a one-way,

environment-to-organism, external-to-internal causal fashion. This kind of

information exchange can be witnessed as a result of research accrued and

experiments performed by biologists and other thinkers.

It is common knowledge that an organism’s survival is dependent

upon both genetic and environmental factors (Gould, 2002; Berra, 1990;

Mayr, 1969, 1976, 1982, 1991, 2001; Ayala, 1982). For example, if there

is an alteration in a rodent’s genetic makeup that causes it to have a

malformed foot, then it is more likely to be eaten by a hawk out on

the open range. However, if the same handicapped rodent lives in a

forested area where it can hide under rocks and bushes, it is less likely

to become a predator’s victim. Also, if an environment happens to be

made up of trees having fruit high up on its branches, and it just so

happens that a fruit-eating animal’s genes coded it to have a neck long

enough to reach the fruit, then such an animal likely will survive. Conversely,

if your animal genes coded you to have a short neck, it is

unlikely you would survive in such an environment (i.e., if the fruit

high up in the trees were your only food source). In the words of Berra  (1990, p. 8), “The environment is the selecting agent, and because

the environment changes over time and from one region to another,

different variants will be selected under different environmental conditions.”

These examples illustrate that there is a one-way, external-tointernal

exchange of information between an environment and an

organism existing in that environment.

Another famous example that illustrates the informational transfer

between the environment and an organism in a one-way, external-tointernal

fashion has to do with the fi nches that Darwin (1859) described

on the Galapagos Islands during his voyage on The Beagle. These fi nches

clearly exhibit adaptive radiation, that is, in the words of Berra (1990,

p. 163), “the evolutionary divergence of members of a single phylogenetic

lineage into a variety of ecological roles usually resulting, in a short period

of time, in the appearance of several or many new species.” Darwin noted

several different beak shapes and sizes that apparently were modifi ed in

the fi nches, depending upon the ecological niche the particular bird inhabited.

Some fi nches had massive beaks ideal for crushing their seed food

source, others had thinner pointed beaks ideal for probing fl owers, and

still others had curved beaks ideal for picking food out of woody holes. In

this set of circumstances, the environments the various fi nches inhabited

were all different, and the fi nches with beaks most fi t for a particular environment

survived to reproduce.

Phenotypic traits are the physiological characteristics or behaviors of

organisms that are under genetic control. The genetic information determines

what a particular member of a species will look like, how fast it will

run, what coloration it will have, how successful it will be at mating, and

so on (Carroll, 2005; Mayr, 2001; Lewontin, 1992; Gould, 2002; Gordon,

1992). In the fi nch example, the different beaks represent the variety of

phenotypic characteristics under genetic infl uence. If it just so happened

that a certain beak style was effective in gathering food in an environment,

then that fi nch would survive and pass its genes on to other fi nches. Soon,

that particular niche would be dominated by the beak style that was most

fi t for that environment. I will have more to say about the general evolutionary

principles of genetic variability and natural selection in the beginning

of the fourth chapter.

Research has been conducted on animals to determine how the external

environment affects the functioning of various systems of the body. One

experiment has to do with occluding or removing the eyes of cats, rats,

and birds at various stages of development to see if the neural connections

of the brain necessary to the visual system either would develop abnormally or would cease to function altogether. These studies indicated

that when occluding or removing the eyes, certain neural connections in

the brains of these animals would not be made. This resulted in the cessation

of certain visual processes, causing the overall subsystem to be underdeveloped

in relation to other animals that had not had their eyes

occluded or removed (Shatz, 1992; Shatz & Stryker, 1978; Clayton &

Krebs, 1994; Black & Greenough, 1986; Cziko, 1995). This research illustrates

what happens when information is not exchanged between environment

and organism.

A further example that demonstrates environment-to-organism,

external–internal information exchange has to do with research on the

fruit fl y, Drosophila. Experimenters are able to take out, move around, or

add genetic sequences in the DNA of the fl y, causing radical phenotypic

alterations to result, such as the deletion of some organ, legs growing

where antennae should be, and antennae growing where legs should be.

The experimenter’s adjustments to the genetic code of the fruit fl y are

analogous to the radioactive material and other kinds of natural external

forces of mutation that alter the genetic codes of fruit fl y populations. We

fi nd similar monstrosities in fruit fl ies when we study them in their

natural habitats (Duncan, Burgess, & Duncan, 1998). Just as researchers

tap into and alter the genetic codes of fruit fl ies in controlled experiments,

so too, external forces “tap into” and alter the genetic makeup of

fruit fl y populations in nature. These fruit fl y abnormalities are another

example of the property of environmental–organismic information

exchange found in organisms.

In this chapter, I have attempted to elucidate Mayr’s idea that organisms

are hierarchically organized living systems. So far, we have seen

that an organism is a living entity, the components of which are hierarchically

organized in subsystems and processes operating so as to

achieve particularized and generalized homeostasis. These subsystems and

processes possess certain properties including abilities to exchange data

fl exibly, convert data to information in a selection process, integrate

information, and process information from environments. Among many

other kinds of activities, organisms will engage in four basic operations—

namely, some form of fi ghting, fl eeing, eating, and reproducing—while

constantly interacting with environments. Given the consequent pressures

entailed in this kind of interaction, it makes sense that the subsystems

and processes of an organism be coordinated and unifi ed in a

systemic fashion, so as optimally to engage in these activities while

negotiating environments.

In the next chapter, after using ideas and arguments from this chapter

in support of certain forms of metaphysical and epistemological forms of

emergence, I give further elucidation to Mayr’s idea that organisms operate

on the basis of historically acquired programs of information, as well as

ratify Plotkin’s claim that biological phenomena only make complete sense

in light of evolutionary theory, by endorsing a hybrid view of functions

based in both the Cummins organizational and the Griffi ths/Godfrey-

Smith modern history accounts.